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exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is non-probability sampling?

A

Sample selected using non-random sampling. All forms of sampling not conducted according to the canons of probability sampling.

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2
Q

What is characteristic of probability sampling?

A

Sample findings are generalizable to the population they’re drawn from.

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3
Q

What is a sampling frame?

A

A list of elements in the population. the source material or device from which a sample is drawn.

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4
Q

What are the 4 types of probability sampling?

A

Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Multi-stage cluster sampling
Systematic sampling

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5
Q

What are the characteristics and process of simple random sampling?

A

Everyone has an equal chance of being selected

  1. Define the population
  2. Devise a sampling frame
  3. Decide on sample size
  4. List population and assign them consecutive numbers
  5. Pick numbers at random
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6
Q

What are the characteristics and process of stratified random sampling?

A

-Units are randomly selected from a population that has already been divided into sub-groups
-Assure subgroups are represented proportionately

-Requires that relevant criteria for stratification be known in advance

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7
Q

What are the characteristics and process of multi-stage cluster sampling?

A

-Used for large populations
-Involves 2+ stages

-Divide population into groups
-Randomly sample a number of groups
-From each of the groups sample a number of people

-Stratified cluster sampling can ensure clusters are representative of entire population

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8
Q

What are some pros and cons of multi-stage cluster sampling?

A

+ Solves problem of inadequate sampling frame
+ Cost effective
- Technical issues
- Clusters are not all the same size

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9
Q

What is heterogeneity of a population?

A

An issue pertaining to sample size. Populations with higher heterogeneity lead to more varied samples, and thus require a larger sample size.

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10
Q

What is characteristic of absolute sample size?

A

-More reliable and generalizable
-More important than relativity
-Sampling error decreases as sample size increases

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10
Q

How much does sampling error decrease with each increase in standard sample size?

A

1/2->1/3->1/4->1/5

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11
Q

What are the standard sample sizes?

A

-100
-400
-900
-1600
-2500

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12
Q

What is characteristic of relative sample size?

A

-Sample size is representative of population size
-Less reliable than absolute samples because different sample sizes have different confidence intervals

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13
Q

What is non-response?

A

An issue with sample size

  • If there is a common issue to the non-responders that brings them to differ significantly from participants
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14
Q

How does “kind of analysis” pose an issue with sample size?

A

-Sample size may need to vary to accommodate different kinds of analysis
- Smaller groups may need to be oversampled in order to draw meaningful comparisons

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15
Q

What is time sampling?

A

-Aspect of structured observation
-Observer records whatever is happening at a given time in a given place

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16
Q

What is characteristic of time sampling?

A

-Observation periods may have to be randomly selected
-Observation times can be randomly scattered across a period of time

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17
Q

What is place sampling?

A

-Random sampling at specific places
-Goes hand in hand with time sampling and behaviour sampling

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18
Q

What is behaviour sampling?

A

Researcher may want to observe every nth (5th, 7th, 11th, whatever) interaction between people at a given time and place

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19
Q

What is sampling error?

A

Errors of estimation that occur due to discrepancies between sample and population.

-Impossible to eliminate completely, but can be mitigated by large sample size and random sampling

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20
Q

How is sampling error measured?

A

Standard error of the mean
- 95% of sample lies within +/-1.96 standard errors of the mean

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21
Q

What are the characteristics and process of snowball sampling?

A

-Similar to convenience sampling
-Unlikely to be representative of population
-Mostly qualitative
1. Researcher makes initial contact with small group of people
2. Researcher uses said group of people to reach more people

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22
Q

What are the 4 types of non-probability sampling?

A

Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
Convenience sampling

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23
Q

What are the characteristics and process of convenience sampling?

A

Researcher chooses sample simply because they are easily accessible
- High response rate
- Low generalizability
- Useful for test/pilot studies
- Ethically questionable

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24
Q

What are the characteristics and process of quota sampling?

A
  • Does not use random sampling to fill quotas
  1. Individuals are selected on the basis of quotas/criteria
  2. Quotas are filled until they are proportional to the population
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25
Q

What some pros and cons of quota sampling?

A

+ Cheap
+ Can be conducted quickly
+ Good for pilot tests/exploratory research
- Not likely to actually be representative because researchers choose participants
- Judgement about eligibility may incorrect
- Amount by which a characteristic differs from the population cannot be determined because it is inappropriate to calculate the standard error of the mean

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26
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

Cases are selected on the basis of their ability to provide information relevant to the topic of study

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27
Q

What are the characteristics of unstructured interviews?

A
  • Interviewer free to explore any topic
  • Memory aid used at most
  • Informal questioning/content/phrasing
  • Sequencing of questions can vary from interview to interview
  • Conversational
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28
Q

What are the limits to generalization?

A
  • Findings can only be generalized to the population they were taken from
  • Findings may be time specific, rendered obsolete with time
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28
Q

What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative research?

A
  1. Numbers v. Words
    - Means of social analysis
  2. POV of researcher v. POV of participant
    - Through what lens is the research structured, who provides point of orientation?
  3. Researcher is distant v. Researcher is close
    - How much contact do researchers have with their subjects?
  4. Theory and concepts tested in research v. Theory and concepts developed through research
    - Chronology of theory/concepts & data
  5. Structured v. Unstructured
    - Maximize validity/reliability v. know subjects intimately and allow theory to develop
  6. Generalizable knowledge v. Contextual understanding
    - Understanding the whole of society v. understanding the individuals being studied
  7. Hard, reliable data v. Deep, rich data
    - Robust/Precise/Unambiguous v. Rich/Detailed/Nuanced
  8. Macro v. Micro
    - Scale of researched group
  9. Behaviour v. Meaning
    - Focus on behaviour v. meaning of behaviour
  10. Artificial settings v. Natural settings
    - Where is research conducted?
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29
Q

What is a direct question?

A

Answered with interviewee perceptions, best left until later in the interview so as not to affect the procession of the interview.

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30
Q

What are the characteristics of semi-structured interviews?

A
  • Interview guide (list of fairly specific questions) is used
  • Interviewee given leeway to respond
  • Questions may not follow exact order
  • Questions may be changed/added contextually
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31
Q

What are the characteristics of structured interviews?

A

All respondents are asked the exact same questions with the help of a formal interview schedule

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32
Q

What are the characteristics of an in-depth interview?

A
  • Open-ended questions
  • Response flexibility
  • One-on-one interaction
  • Contextual understanding
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33
Q

What is an indirect question?

A

Answered with interviewee perceptions of others

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34
Q

What is an open-ended question and what are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

A question that allows respondents to answer however they want.
+ Encourages respondents to share their thoughts and feelings
+ Useful for in depth analysis
- Time consuming
- Limited standardization

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35
Q

What is true of natural settings?

A
  • Not a lab
  • In the field
  • No measurement instruments used
  • Talk to people and observe their behaviour in the context being studied
  • Face to face contact
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35
Q

What is a closed-ended question and what are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

A question that gives respondents a set list of answers to choose from
+ Easy to collect structured data
- Limited insight
- Response bias

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36
Q

What is inferred by “mixed methods” research?

A

Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods in a study.

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36
Q

What are the arguments against multi-strategy research?

A
  • Particular research methods are associated with particular epistemological and ontological positions (embedded methods argument)
  • Qualitative and quantitative research methods are inherently incompatible on epistemological and ontological grounds (paradigm argument)
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37
Q

How can researchers gain access to closed settings?

A
  • Use friends/colleagues
  • Use gatekeepers
  • Offer something in return
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38
Q

What is ethnography?

A

A study of people and their culture in naturally occurring settings.

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39
Q

What is true of ethnography?

A
  • Unstructured observation such as in-depth interviews
  • Describes the life of a community from participant POV without outside interference
  • Researchers are immersed in a particular setting for a long time
  • Can also refer to a written account about particular qualitative research
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40
Q

How can researchers gain access to open settings?

A

Similarly to closed settings, but may have to answer pointed questions.

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41
Q

What is structured observation?

A

Researchers follow rules of what to look for as well as when and where, and how to record their findings.

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42
Q

What is participant observation?

A

An observational aspect of ethnography that includes:
- Observing behaviour
- Asking questions
- Analyzing conversations
- Field immersion

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43
Q

What is the participant-as-observer approach and what are its associated risks?

A
  • Researcher adopts a role in the group being studied
  • Participants are aware who the researcher is
  • Risk of reactivity
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44
Q

What is the complete participant approach and what are its associated risks?

A
  • Covert operation, same as participant-as-observer but the group is unaware
  • Researcher adopts a secret role in the group
  • Risk adopting behaviours of the group (going native)
  • Risk developing distaste for the research subjects
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45
Q

What is the observer-as-participant approach and what are its associated risks?

A
  • Researcher observes from the edge of the group, participating minimally
  • Risk of reactivity
  • Risks misinterpretation of observed activity
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46
Q

What is the reactive effect (reactivity)?

A

The effect of subjects knowing they are being studied.

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47
Q

What is member validation?

A

A means of confirming qualitative study credibility whereby the researcher asks the research subjects for their feedback on the research findings.

48
Q

What are thick descriptions?

A
  • Detailed accounts of a social setting/people’s experiences that can act as a basis for general statements about a culture and its significance in people’s lives.
  • Means of determining qualitative study transferability (to other times/contexts/peoples/etc.)
49
Q

What is reflexivity?

A

Researchers’ awareness of the implications that their methods, values, biases, decisions, presence have on the knowledge they generate. (Reflecting on those things)

50
Q

What are informants?

A

People who offer a researcher/ethnographer information about social setting, important events, individuals.

51
Q

What is participatory action research (PAR)?

A

When researchers and participants collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal.

52
Q

What are covert participants?

A

Individuals who are unaware that they are being studied by an ethnographer who has infiltrated their group.

53
Q

What are the strengths and weakness of using covert participants?

A

+ Easier access
+Less reactivity
- Ethical concerns
- No reflection time (low reflexivity)
- Anxiety inducing
- Impossible to conduct interviews

54
Q

What is characteristic of PAR?

A
  • Mixed epistemologies
  • Often used in activism
  • Action oriented
55
Q

What are the conditions of trustworthiness in qualitative research?

A
  • Transferability
  • Credibility
  • Dependability
  • Confirmability
56
Q

What is transferability?

A

Whether interpretations can be applied to other contexts, or the same context at another time. Can be heightened by employing thick descriptions.

57
Q

What is dependability?

A

Achieved by following the proper procedures and theoretical inference justification. Can be heightened by auditing.

57
Q

What is credibility?

A

Interpretations of the study ring true to the people studied. Can be heightened using member validation.

58
Q

What is confirmability?

A
  • Did the researcher sway the results dramatically?
  • Was the researcher objective and unbiased?
  • Can be heightened by auditing
59
Q

What is auditing?

A

Keeping complete, detailed records of every phase of the research to be subjected to peer review

60
Q

What are life-history interviews?

A

Unstructured interviews used by ethnographers to gather a detailed biography of the interviewee.

61
Q

What is the focus group method?

A

An interview with 4+ respondents who can interact with one another as well as with the researcher.

62
Q

What are some benefits of focus groups?

A
  • Gain access to meanings that develop as a product of interaction
  • Brings out a wide variety of perspectives
  • Brings out why people feel the way they do
  • Brings out how individuals collectively make decisions (naturalistic)
63
Q

Who is the moderator in a focus group, and what are their responsibilities?

A
  • Ensure the discussion stays on topic
  • Ensure everyone participates without use of coercion
  • Ask as few questions as possible
  • Intervene only as much as is necessary given participant knowledge, topic of discussion, and research goals
64
Q

What are some weaknesses of focus groups?

A
  • Less control over the interview
  • Too much data produced
  • Hard to analyze data
  • Difficult to arrange
  • Personalities may clash
  • People may be hesitant to discuss sensitive topics
65
Q

What is theoretical saturation?

A

The point at which interviewers can predict what the answers will be, and no substantial new information is being received.

65
Q

How many groups should be conducted in the focus group method?

A

10-15 or until theoretical saturation is reached.

66
Q

What is reflexivity in the context of conversation analysis?

A

Talk is not a “mere” representation of the social world, standing for something else, but is itself a reality.

67
Q

What is conversation analysis?

A

A qualitative approach to the study of language centered on the structure of talk.

68
Q

What is indexicality?

A

Things like pauses and sounds that possess meaning dependant on the context in which they are used

69
Q

What are the two themes central to conversation analysis?

A

Reflexivity and indexicality

70
Q

Which ontological approach is most closely associated with conversation analysis?

A

Constructionism

71
Q

How does conversation analysis connect to quantitative research?

A

It can produce replicable results, be measurable, and is sometimes referred to as positivistic.

72
Q

What is positivism?

A

An epistemological position that advocates using the methods of the natural sciences in the study of social reality.

72
Q

What are the defining characteristics of how talk is organized?

A
  • Turn-taking
  • Adjacency pairs
  • Preference organization
72
Q

What does conversation analysis assume?

A
  • Talk is structured
  • Talk is forged contextually
  • Analysis should be grounded in data
73
Q

What is constructionism?

A

An ontological position that suggests meanings and reality are constructed, and constantly changed by social actors.

74
Q

What is turn-taking in conversation analysis?

A

Taking turns to speak is a rule that helps maintain order in everyday conversation.

75
Q

What are adjacency pairs in conversation analysis?

A

Two kinds of talk actively linked together such as invitation and response

75
Q

What are the 4 themes in discourse analysis?

A
  • Discourse is a topic itself
  • Language is constructive
  • Discourse is a form of action
  • Discourse is rhetorically organized
76
Q

What is preference organization in conversation analysis?

A

Some responses are preferred to others

77
Q

What is discourse analysis?

A

An action oriented approach to the study of language that is more flexible than conversation analysis as it can be applied to other forms of communication.

78
Q

What are the two distinctive epistemological and ontological features of discourse analysis?

A

Constructionism, anti-realism

79
Q

What does discourse analysis focus on?

A
  • How a view of the world or understanding of an object is produced through a discourse
  • How linguistic categories shape people’s understanding of the world
  • How the relationships of power are reproduced in a discourse
80
Q

How are facts produced?

A
  • Quantification rhetoric
  • Using variation in number to highlight contrast
  • Attention to specific details
  • Attention to rhetorical details
81
Q

What is attention to specific details in the context of fact production?

A

emphasizing supportive evidence to the argument

81
Q

What is quantification rhetoric?

A

The various ways in which statements involving number or quantities can be made to either support or refute arguments.

82
Q

What is polysemy?

A

Semiotic terminology that refers to the notion that signs can be interpreted in many different ways

82
Q

What is attention to rhetorical details in the context of fact production?

A

sensitivity to the way argument is constructed

83
Q

What is semiotics?

A

The science of signs.

83
Q

What is meaning?

A

Attitudes, thoughts, feelings

84
Q

What is the goal of semiotics?

A
  • Look at signs to understand systems of communication and meanings
  • Expose hidden messages in text
84
Q

What is critical discourse analysis?

A

A form of discourse analysis that is explicit in exposing the political nature of examined texts

85
Q

What is hermeneutics? What must be considered under hermeneutics?

A

A form of language analysis in which the analyst of a text must seek its meaning through the POV of its author
- Historical and social context within the which a text was written must be considered

86
Q

What is content analysis?

A

An approach to the analysis of text or documents that seeks to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories in a systematic and replicable manner.

87
Q

What are the pros and cons of content analysis?

A

+ Very transparent/replicable
+ Allows for longitudinal analysis
+ Unobtrusive
+ Flexible
+ Overcomes social barriers to researcher access

  • Limitations brought about by analyzed texts
  • Inter/intra-coder unreliability
  • Potential for invalid conjecture
  • Difficult to answer “why?” questions
  • Emphasis on measurement may make it atheoretical
88
Q

What is grounded theory?

A

Theory derived from data, systematically gathered, and analyzed through the research process

89
Q

What are the 3 types of coding?

A

Open, axial, selective

89
Q

What are the basic features of grounded theory?

A

Coding, constant comparison, theoretical saturation

90
Q

What does open coding do?

A

identifies initial concepts that will be categorized later

91
Q

What does axial coding do?

A

reviews data for linkages, and is then re-organized according to connections found

92
Q

What are the two types of theory and what are their characteristics?

A
  • Substantive: developed to explain relationships between patterns in a given setting
  • Formal: formulated at a higher level, requires data collection, widely applicable
93
Q

What does selective coding do?

A

Select core categories

94
Q

What are the outcomes of grounded theory?

A
  • Concepts
  • Categories (encompass multiple concepts)
  • Properties (attributes of a category)
  • Hypotheses
  • Theories
95
Q

What is positivism, what are its characteristics?

A
  • Epistemological position
  • Follows natural sciences
  • Uses empiricism (knowledge is confirmed by senses)
  • Scientific, not normative (can be tested empirically and thus either supported or rejected)
96
Q

What are the goals of positivism?

A
  • Generate hypotheses via deduction
  • Uncover social laws governing reality
97
Q

What is the iterative process?

A

Analysis starts after some data has been gathered, and further data is gathered on the basis of that analysis

98
Q

What is narrative analysis?

A

the search for and analysis of stories that people tell to understand their lives and the world around them.

98
Q

What is analytic induction?

A

An iterative process in which a research question is devised, data is gathered, hypothesis is formed. If an observed case does not fit the hypothesis, the hypothesis is reworked.

99
Q

What is the goal of analytic induction?

A

analytic induction seeks universal explanations of phenomena that permit no exception.

100
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Examines what is said rather than how it is said.
- Finding how many times something is said influences identification and prioritization of themes

100
Q

What are the 4 types of narrative analysis?

A
  • Thematic
  • Structural
  • Performative
  • Interactional
101
Q

Structural analysis

A

Examines the way a story is told and what is emphasized in the narrative to increase persuasiveness

102
Q

Performative analysis

A
  • Examines narrative as a performance.
  • Explores the use of words and gestures to get a story across.
  • Examines audience responses to the narrative.
103
Q

Interactional analysis

A

Examines the dialogue between the teller and listener and how the interaction results in co-construction of meaning

104
Q

What does a coding scheme consist of?

A

Coding schedule and coding manual

105
Q

What is a coding schedule?

A

A form onto which the data are entered

106
Q

What is a coding manual?

A

A list of codes to be used in the analysis of a particular set of data.

107
Q

What are concepts?

A
  • Discrete phenomena produced through open coding
  • Building blocks of theory
108
Q

What are properties?

A

Aspects/Attributes of a category

109
Q

What are hypotheses?

A

Initial hunches about relationships between concepts

110
Q

What is coding?

A

Categorizing and labelling data to identify themes, patterns, and relationships

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