Exam 1 Flashcards
(222 cards)
1
Q
What was the political configuration in Europe before 1500?
A
There were multiple configurations of power, with no clear borders, a fragmentation of political authority within each political entity, and overlapping authority. Examples included empires, monarchies, the church, towns, and personal hierarchies.
2
Q
What is a state?
A
A political entity with two key features: a piece of territory with reasonably well defined borders, and political authorities who enjoy sovereignty. Also featured centralization of power and support by a central administration.
3
Q
When was the Treaty of Westphalia?
A
1648
4
Q
What was the reason for the Treaty of Westphalia?
A
To end the Thirty Years war in Europe
5
Q
What does national sovereignty include?
A
Internal and external sovereignty
6
Q
What is internal sovereignty?
A
Exclusive and legitimate political authority inside a state’s territory.
7
Q
What is external sovereignty?
A
Each state is recognized by the others as the legitimate member of a community of equals.
8
Q
What were the ambiguities/limitations of the Westphalian sovereignty?
A
It only applies to a few states in Europe, those states continued to fight each other, they colonized the rest of the world. But, it was a milestone for the spread of the state model.
9
Q
When was the French Revolution?
A
1789
10
Q
What was the impact of the French Revolution on the state?
A
It was the birth of modern nationalism, and state security evolved to be not only based on force and control, but also legitimacy
11
Q
What is nationalism?
A
An intense sense of national community by a particular people in a geographically defined space.
12
Q
What is the mutual reinforcing relationship between wars and the state?
A
States fight war, so to win those wars, states need to make the most of their natural resources, so states develop better means to control their population, so states can fight bigger and bigger wars, and this cycle continues over and over again.
13
Q
What was the cause of the development for strategic thought in war?
A
Rise of the modern state and the rising scale of interstate wars
14
Q
Who developed the science of war strategies?
A
Jomini and Clauswitz
15
Q
What are geostrategic doctrines?
A
Developed by Alfred T. Mahan, it studies the forces that drive world politics across space
16
Q
What was Alfred T Mahan’s concept of seapower?
A
Seapower was relevant for commerce and access to markets, war (blockades), and was a symbol of national greatness. Mahan recommended the US build a strong fleet, develop colonies with naval bases, and control the world’s chokepoints.
17
Q
When was the discipline of IR created?
A
1919
18
Q
When was International Security Studies created?
A
1945
19
Q
Why was ISS created in 1945?
A
Due to WWII atrocities, the failure of multilateral institutions, and the onset of the Cold War.
20
Q
Why was ISS created in 1945?
A
Due to WWII atrocities, the failure of multilateral institutions, and the onset of the Cold War.
21
Q
What factors explain the evolution of the discipline of ISS?
A
Changes in the distribution of power among the leading states, technological breakthroughs, the inherent dynamics of academic debates, institutions that support the production of knowledge
22
Q
What’s an example of the changes in the distribution of power among the leading states?
A
The US at the end of the CW
23
Q
What is an example of a technological breakthrough?
A
The nuclear revolution, the Internet
24
Q
What is meant by the inherent dynamic of academic debate?
A
Intellectual disagreements (arguments and counterarguments and theories in need of updates/corrections), as well as developments on other academic fields that influences ISS.
25
What is the impact of institutions that support the production of knowledge?
Allocation of resources, but this can lead to biases and can generate intellectual conformism.
26
What is Nye's definition of ISS?
The study of the threat, use, and control of military force
27
What is Walt's definition of ISS?
They conditions that make the use of force more likely, the ways that the use of force affects individuals, states, and societies, and the specific policies that states adapt in order to prepare for, prevent, or engage in war.
28
What do ISS scholars focus on/emphasize?
Focus on material dimensions that can be easily measured, emphasis on rationality (of states and people), emphasis on objectivity.
29
What are topics of interest to ISS scholars?
Nuclear deterrence, alliance formation, offense-defense balance.
30
Why do some scholars say defining security as military security is too narrow?
There's also political security, economic security, societal security, and environmental security.
31
Why do some scholars say security is about more than survival?
Security as emancipation, freeing people from any form of violence
32
Why do some say ISS suffers from a severe Western bias?
It is an Anglo-American discipline. Out of 38,000 IR scholars, 17,000 worked in the US, and non-Western countries are dismissed
33
Why do some scholars believe that ISS's focus on the state is too narrow?
They should focus on individuals, sub-national actors, regions, global institutions, and the biosphere.
34
Why do some scholars say ISS neglects women?
They do not address and acknowledge gender inequality.
35
What are the beliefs of critical security studies?
There is no such thing as objective reality, security is a political product, so it is the product of interpretations, power struggles, and biases, any expert must question his/her own biases.
36
What are the main assumptions of realism?
States matter much more than anyone else, rationality (most realists), and there is a dark side of human nature (greed, violence, and no moral universal principles)
37
What is the implication of anarchy for states in realist theory?
States live in constant insecurity and fear.
38
What is the implication of self-help for states in realist theory?
You can only trust yourself, alliances are only temporary, IOs can't be trusted.
39
Why do states always follow their self-interest in realist theory?
Morality will not be regarded
40
Why is there competition in realist theory?
IS is a zero sum game and conflict is inevitable.
41
What are the main critiques of realism?
Analytical flaws and policy risks
42
What do some say the analytical flaws of realism are?
They underestimate international cooperation, underestimate the role of international organizations and non-state actors, underestimate the power of attraction, and they are unable to explain some important events.
43
What do some say the policy risks of realism are?
Practicing realism can cause dangerous self-fulfilling prophecies.
44
What are the key insights of classical realism?
Pessimism about human nature, the main goal of states: survive, and states always follow their self-interest
45
What did E.H. Carr's "The Twenty Year Crisis" contribute to realism?
It said that the League of Nations was bound to fail and Great Powers just use ideals as pretexts to advance their interests.
46
What did Hans Morganthau say in "Politics Among Nations" in 1948 that contributed to classical realism?
Human nature cannot be transcended, and international politics is a struggle for power.
47
What is structural realism?
Based on "Theory of International Politics" by Kenneth Waltz, they say that the structure of the international system matters more than human nature.
48
What question defines the structure of the international system?
How many great powers?
49
What are the main types of international systems?
Unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar
50
How are state capabilities measured?
Population, territory, natural resources, economic situation, military strength, and political stability
51
What are the responses of states when facing a rising power?
Buckpassing, bandwagoning, and balancing
52
What is buckpassing?
Letting other states do the heavy lifting
53
What is bandwagoning?
Flocking to the strongest state
54
What is balancing?
Countering enemies by increasing one's military strength. Includes internal (building up ones own capabilities) and external (forming alliances) balancing
55
What is the balance of power theory?
States will check concentrations of power by balancing. Ex: British balancing against Germany pre WWI.
56
What is a security dilemma?
When may of the means by which a state tries to increase its security decreases the security of others.
57
What are the mechanisms for a security dilemma?
A arms for self defense, but B sees that as a prelude to an attack, so B arms further, so then A arms further, because they think B has bad intentions, leading to a cycle of distrust.
58
What are the 2 processes that work concurrently in a security dilemma?
Dilemma of interpretation and dilemma of response.
59
What is a dilemma of interpretation?
Assessing others motives, intentions, or capabilities is hard, therefore, there is a tendency to assume the worst.
60
What is a dilemma of response?
There is a tendency to prefer toughness over reassurance/talks
61
What is the fatalist logic of addressing security dilemmas?
Competitive dynamics are inescapable and cooperation will only be opportunistic and short-term
62
What is the mitigator logic of addressing security dilemmas?
The worst competitive dynamics can be attenuated. The English School: laws and norms can make a difference.
63
What is transcender logic of realism?
Human societies can overcome the security dilemma through security communities.
64
What is defensive realism?
States are afraid, they know war is costly, and they want the status quo. As long as states worry for their survival, they will be aggressive, but once states have ensured their survival, they will not be aggressive anymore. States can signal benign intentions.
65
What do defensive realists believe about China's intentions?
They have a history of being invaded, legitimate security concerns, and legitimate rights, hence China wants security, and knows that other states will balance against it if they are too aggressive
66
What do defensive realists believe about the US response to China's rise?
They want to be sure China is not a threat, they want to protect regional trade, they want to protect local allies, so the US only wants stability.
67
What is the defensive realists takeaway from the China-US situation?
There is a security dilemma, but the US and China can reassure each other, and stability is attainable.
68
What do offensive realists believe?
The world is extremely dangerous, states' goal is to maximize their relative power (at the expense of other states) whenever there is an opportunity. Aggression is to be expected, states will not be stupid, but if there is an opportunity to attack/disrupt, they will seize it.
69
What do offensive realists believe about China's intentions?
China is aggressive, with their history of dominating Asia, China's rising power makes China greedy, so they will try to expand whenever there is a chance.
70
What do offensive realists believe about the US reaction to China's rise?
They want to retain global military primacy, so they want to maximize power at China's expense, and they want to defend the world from China and keep dominating the world.
71
What do offensive realists believe the outcome of the US China situation is?
War is likely
72
What is rise and fall realism?
Hegemony=more stability, power transitions fuel instability (declining hegemony wages a preventive war, and a rising challenger may start a preventive war), ideological/cultural proximity can help prevent war (British-US power transition)
73
What do rise and fall realists believe will impact the risk of war?
Whether the US remains number one, or whether China's military catches up eco/military/tech
74
What do neoclassical realists say?
Distribution of state capabilities is a good starting point, but domestic factors matter too.
75
What are some domestic factors that neoclassical realists point to?
Domestic political debates, leader's perceptions, strategic culture.
76
What do neoclassical realists believe will happen between the US and China?
Nearly anything is possible, but domestic factors in China and the US will make a big difference
77
What are the main assumptions of liberalism?
Human progress is possible, focus on individual freedoms, a key-driver of IR is regime type, international cooperation is possible, states are not the only actors that matter in IR
78
What are negative freedoms?
Freedom from arbitrary authority
79
What is positive freedom?
Freedom to promote capacity/opportunities
80
What is the third type of freedom liberals promote?
Democratic participation and representation
81
Why do liberals believe regime type is a key driver of IR?
States are the transmission belt by which the preferences and social power of individuals and groups are translated into foreign policy. The main distinction is between liberal and illiberal regimes
82
What other actors do liberals believe matter, other than states?
International organizations and multinational corporations
83
What are the three main branches of liberalism?
Commercial liberalism, democratic peace theory, and neoliberal institutionalism.
84
When did commercial liberalism come up?
The 18th century, where scholars believed the hidden hand of the market would help optimize prosperity, and that states needed to get rid of protectionist barriers.
85
When did commercial liberalism start to rise?
The 18th century, where scholars believed the hidden hand of the market would help optimize prosperity, and that states needed to get rid of protectionist barriers.
86
How does free trade advance peace?
Rising interdependence, national prosperity, individual enrichment, and the pursuit of wealth leads to moral perfection.
87
What are the main milestones of commercial liberalism?
British endorsement of free trade and abolition of the Corn Laws (1846), President Wilson's Fourteen Points (1919), failure of trade leading to WWII, post-WWII promotion of free trade, post-CW globalization leading to more interdependence.
88
What are some potential critiques of trade liberalism?
Trade can lead to aggressions (competition for strategic resources, aggressive business lobbies, and trade not preventing war) and trade can exacerbate human flaws (greed, racism, nationalism), today's trade is not that free, free trade can be unfair
89
What is the core argument of the democratic peace theory?
Constitutionally liberal states have yet to engage in war with one another. A variant is that democracies are more peaceful in general.
90
Why is there a democratic peace?
Institutional constraints (checks within the country that impeded the capacity of a leader to unilaterally take some action) and normative constraints (beliefs shape the behavior of a leader and value compromise over total victory, with a belief the other democratic leaders will do the same).
91
What are some critiques of democratic peace theory?
The fact that democracies do not fight each other may result from the fact that they are good at fighting wars or economically interdependent, many rivalries between democracies and non-democracies existed before democracy emerged, democracies can pursue highly aggressive foreign policies, and the impulse to conduct foreign led democratization is destructive
92
What is the core principle of neoliberal institutionalism?
Institutions can mitigate conflict
93
Why does international law matter for neoliberal institutionalism?
It creates a common language, establishes mutually accepted rights and obligations, helps apply political pressure on those who violate the law, and facilitates the creation of international organizations, so it provides the means of solving conflicts without violence.
94
How do neoliberal institutionalists believe IOs create peace?
| think IO class and Axelrod
Tit-for-tat mechanism: a spiral of cooperative behavior leads to trust, institutions help states reduce transaction costs, and institutions can socialize states (and their elites).
95
What are some critiques against neoliberal institutionalism?
Great powers (and big corporations) control IOs, states always try to maximize their gains, which perpetuates tensions, and national security questions are too sensitive to trust IOs.
96
What is order?
Contract among nations based on agreements, bargains, and institutions.
97
What are the benefits of the post-1945 world order?
Many more international agreements, more IOs, recognition of shared principles, so predictability in IR
98
What are the main principles of liberal internationalism?
Free trade, multilateral and rules based relations, and democratic values.
99
What are the origins on liberal internationalism?
Enlightenment in Europe: reason and individualism (17th/18th century)
100
What are the four historical drivers of liberal internationalism?
Rise of liberal democracies, transition from empires to sovereign nation-states, intensification of economic and security interdependence, and British/US hegemony
101
Why is the rise of the US led liberal order important for liberal institutionalism?
They contained the Soviet Union, but also promoted democracy and human rights, free trade, and international organizations
102
How was there an expansion of the liberal international order in the 90s-mid 2000s?
More/bigger Western liberal institutions, pursuit of hyper globalization, democracy promotion, engaging Russia/China to make them more liberal, but there was still a decline in the liberal international order.
103
What do some scholars say are the problems with the promotion of democracy and human rights?
The US/West's armed democratization is expensive and likely to fail, the US/West's democratization agenda antagonized non-democratic rivals, criticized for violation of national sovereignty, decline in the number of liberal democracies.
104
What are the problems and consequences of hyper-globalization?
Excessive deregulation, decline of social protections, growing inequalities, leading to growing domestic divisions, declining trust in institutions, anti-liberal political forces. "Engaging China may have been the worst blinder any country has made in recent history"
105
Why do some say the US led international liberal order doesn't have a future?
There will be a multipolar order, decentralized autonomous regions/blocs, and a China-centric international order.
106
Why do some say the US led international order will survive?
There is a long history of international/domestic troubles and resiliency, the order is open/effective enough to appeal to everyone, and the US and western allies still prevail in terms of power
107
Why do constructivists believe about security?
That it is a mental and social construction, and the meaning of security changes as we interact and adjust our perceptions.
108
What are the implications of the constructivist view?
To understand security, we need to look at ideas and mental maps, as opposed to material factors
109
What do agents and structures are mutually constituted mean in anarchy?
The meaning of anarchy is only what states make of it, there is nothing inherently bad about anarchy.
110
What are international norms?
Shared expectations of appropriate behavior held by a community of actors.
111
What are some examples of international norms?
Constrains on warfare, immorality of colonization, non-use of nukes, non-use of chemical weapons.
112
Why do actors adopt norms?
Logic of instrumentality (advancing an interest), logic of consequences (fear of punishment by other actors), and logic of appropriateness (internalization of what is appropriate.
113
How do constructivists believe norms spread?
Through norm entrepreneurs.
114
What is the norm life cycle?
Emergence, cascade, internalization by a majority of actors.
115
What is identity?
How a particular group conceives of itself, the boundaries of that group, and its values. Actors have multiple identities and identities are constantly evolving
116
What are the impacts of national and regional identity?
National: Influences how a state views their military (Japan and Germany pacifism post-WWII)
Regional: The idea of war being unthinkable in an area (Europe)
117
How do constructivists believe IOs are powerful?
IOs can help classify/organize the world, IOs can diffuse new norms, so their member states have to adapt, and as they adapt, their identities change
118
Who created securitization theory?
The Copenhagen school (Busan, Waever)
119
What is the securitization process?
The process by which issues become part of the security agenda. Leaders present something as a security threat, and their audiences accept it. Hence, security is a speech act.
120
Is securitization always intellectually accurate?
The threats and threat levels that we discuss can be real, or misperceived, or deliberately distorted.
121
Is securitization always a good thing?
Presenting something as an issue can help mobilize resources, but it can also aggravate the issues, so sometimes we need desecuritization
122
What are some critiques of securitization theory?
Securitization theory marginalizes the experiences of the powerless (those who die or suffer in silence are not worth being studied) and it may neglect audiences (we need to study the audience's feelings, needs, and interests)
123
What is critical theory?
A theory designed to reveal the power politics behind scholarly concepts and policy agendas. They believe there is no objective reality, and all dominant representations/discourses derive from power.
124
What is the differences between critical theory and problem solving theory?
Problem solving theory involves fixing issues to make the system work, while critical theory asks how that order came about.
125
What is the critical theory conclusion about the Middle East?
We assume the Middle East is a neutral concept that refers to an objective reality, but definitions of the Middle East have often changed, based on the evolution of British/US interests
126
Why did Obama and his administration use medical/surgical metaphors for drone strikes?
They were designed to manipulate by suggesting that the US government's expertise, control, and rationality despite the fact that US drone strikes killed many civilians and failed to stem terrorism.
127
What is postcolonialism?
A theoretical approach that explores how the legacies of imperialism continue to structure the practice and study of IR
128
What is imperialism?
A state's domination over other states and populations (can take various forms)
129
What is colonialism?
The policy of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically
130
What is the difference between colonialism and imperialism?
They overlap to an important extent, but colonialism is usually considered more intrusive/aggressive
131
What are some recent legacies of colonialism that postcolonialists point to?
Artificial borders created by colonial powers, ethnic tensions from divide and rule strategies, religious tensions resulting from divide and rule, radical Islamism and European neocolonialism in Africa, and unfair trade rules that hampered many developing countries
132
What is the first key moment of postcolonialism?
The Bandung conference of 1955. 29 recently decolonized Asian and African states joined together to asset a voice for the Third World, refusing to join CW blocks, promoting domestic economic growth, promote social justice, fight racism , accelerate global decolonization, and oppose neocolonialism.
133
When was the non aligned movement created?
1961
134
What was the second key moment of post colonialism?
9/11. The Global War on Terror affected the global south negatively, hurt people of color in the US, globalization did not address global inequality, and the international order is still radicalized.
135
Why did the concept of the global south emerge?
A concept of that replaced the Third World after the Cold War, it gave a notion of empowerment and growing assertiveness.
136
Who is Frantz Fanon?
A postcolonialist scholar (1925-1961) from Martinique, who experienced racism in the French army during WWII, and wrote the wretched of the Earth
137
What were the themes of Frantz Fanon's work?
Generative character of violence, psychological damage of colonialism (on the victims and the perpetrators) and postcolonial black identity must still fit in the White world
138
Who is Edward B Said?
A Palestinian American postcolonialist scholar (1935-2003) who talked about biased representations and knowledge production
139
What is Edward Said's concept of orientalist?
The West (occident) defines itself against the East (orient), and the West's self-perception of civilized, progressive, and ration needs the definition of the East as barbaric, lazy, and irrational, and that justifies interventionism, violence, and enduring Western dominance.
140
Who is Gayatri Spivak?
An Indian postcolonialist scholar (1942-)
141
What was Gayatri Spivak's subalternity?
The subaltern is a community that falls outside the hegemonic discourse and cultural imperialism. They suffer from silencing, erasure, and writing out.
142
What is Gayatri Spivak's concept of the West's epistemic violence?
The subalterns are ignored and unheard and Western leaders often use them as pretexts to justify Western interventionism.
143
Why do postcolonialist scholars criticize IR as having racist origins?
In the Late 1800s-early 1900s, IR studied race and colonial administration ("inferior races"), the first academic IR journal studied race issues.
144
Why do scholars criticize IR's post WWII disinterest in racial issues?
From 1945-1993, in the top 5 IR journals, there was only 1 article with race in the title.
145
Why do postcolonialists criticize the composition of IR scholars?
While there have been black PhDs at Harvard and other top universities, they have had no role in the white university system, had to create their own journals and associations, and even today, only 8% of IR scholars identify as black or latino.
146
Why do some scholars criticize IR's analysis of the world?
There is persistent amnesia on race questions, IR is Eurocentric, IR sees the non-Western world as devoid of agency (uncivilized or in need of saving)
147
What are some examples of IR neglecting to highlight the racism of some of its key thinkers and practitioners?
Immanuel Kant was a founding figure of liberalism, but believed humanity achieved its greatest perfection with the white race and Woodrow Wilson was a foundational figure of modern liberalism but had racist convictions that made many Americans of color suffer.
148
Why do some scholars say liberal theory legitimizing Western interference?
In the name of spreading democracy and in the name spreading capitalism.
149
Why do postcolonialist scholars criticize the coverage of WWII?
It is presented as the good war, but US/Britain were not popular in colonial areas, the use of nukes against Japan was partly rooted, we ignored how the West's colonialism inspired the Holocaust, and after WWII, some democracies tried to reimpose colonial control
150
What are the core assumptions of feminism in IR?
Gender impacts power, because gender places a higher value on the term which is associated with masculinity. The international system is gender-hierarchical.
151
What is gender?
A system of symbolic meaning that creates social hierarchies based on perceived associations with masculine and feminine characteristics.
152
Why do feminists believe the study of gender is highly relevant to IR?
It helps understand the international environment and its actors, it helps identify the causes of conflict, and it helps develop a deeper understanding of security.
153
What do feminists believe security is also about (not just war)?
Domestic violence, rape, poverty, gender subordination.
154
What are the main tenants of the liberal feminists?
They denounce women's subordination as morally wrong, inhibiting development, and causing international security, and they promote women in public positions, on the assumption of equality/similarity between men as women.
155
What are the main tenets of the radical feminists?
They study the patriarchy and the importance of the private sphere, while assuming that men and women are different.
156
What is the patriarchy?
How society supports the power of men over women and their bodies.
157
Why do some feminist scholars say men are fundamentally different from women?
Due to biology or socialization, women can express emotions more easily, are less aggressive and competitive, more nurturing, and have a more nuanced approach to complexity.
158
What is an example of women's unique contributions to international relations?
| radicalization
Local women had a central role in the family and community, so they can detect early signs of radicalization and can challenge extremist narratives in homes and schools.
159
Why do some feminist scholars believe women are not fundamentally different from men?
Women are just as capable of violence (war leaders, women in combat, suicide bombers) and emphasizing binary gender differences can perpetuate gender prejudices.
160
What does feminist critical theory work on?
Deconstructing discourses/representations/policies/norms, criticizing social representations/discourses as acts of domination/oppression, and denouncing binary dichotomies that value/empower the masculine.
161
Why do feminist critical scholars question NGO brochures?
They inadvertently perpetuate gendered biases of women as vulnerable and a liability, while men fight to protect women.
162
What are some feminist critiques against IR as an academic discipline?
IR keywords are male-oriented, "masculine" concepts are viewed more positively, "feminine" concepts are viewed more nagatively, war coverage dismisses women.
163
Why do feminist scholars say IR scholars neglect gender?
Most IR scholars are men, less that 40 out of 5,000 articles in the top 5 IR journals in the last twenty years involved gender, Ir scholars neglect structural violence, IR scholars ignore gender as a broader symbolic/cultural construction, and IR scholars do not study how their own gender biases distort their understanding of the world.
164
Why do feminist scholars say women have disproportionate suffering in the world economy?
They earn 70% of men's salary at equal qualifications on average, about 70% of the world's 1.3 B poor people, negative patterns hurt women's ability to develop professional qualifications
165
Why do feminist scholars say women have disproportionate suffering in war casualties?
Women and girls represent the majority of civilian victims and 80% of refugees are women and children.
166
Why do feminist scholars say women have been marginalized?
They are only 20% of elected leaders and parliamentarians, they make up 30% of UN secretariat leadership positions, and only 4% of UN peacekeepers.
167
What arguments do men use to justify the exclusion of women?
Their involvement is unfeasible in traditional culture and few women have the required technical expertise.
168
What is the role of women in the US military?
They have long been seen as hurting combat effectiveness with the band of brothers, but now women are open to all combat roles, and are 50% of the active duty forces, 20% of the officer corps, and in less than 10% of the leadership positions.
169
What was the role of the government media use of masculinity during WWII?
In the US the Great Depression, masculinity was in need of a revival, which the government turned into beating a Nazi to restore it. Meanwhile, Nazi Germany thrives on the notion of hypermasculinity.
170
Why do feminist scholars believe there is a biased storytelling of the US war in Afghanistan?
There was Western discourse about solidarity with Afghan women, but this didn't exist before 9/11, it painted white males as saviors, and Afghan women were rarely ever heard.
171
What is the contribution of women to overseas bases in peacetime>
Support of male social structures (which tends to be understated), they helped keep foreign bases together.
172
What is the relationship between US bases and South Korean women?
The South Korean government was constantly afraid the US would close their bases, which led to them offering a better prostitution system around US bases, including training prostitutes and promoting sexual health. This lead to women suffering.
173
What do feminists have to say about masculinity and military centric social systems?
The entire system is built upon gender and military power, through institutions, leading ideologies, mainstream culture, and material.
174
What is war?
A contention between two or more states through their armed forces, for the purpose of overpowering each other.
175
What are the assumptions of war?
It is led by states and their militaries, it is conducted rationally, the focus is on the battlefield, and it is seen as tragic, but necessary.
176
What is the legal approach to the concept of war?
The legal condition which equally permits two or more hostile groups to carry on a conflict by armed force. Requires a declaration of war or an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war.
177
What is the sociological approach to the concept of war?
War is a full spectrum social phenomena, and we must look beyond the war front and beyond wartime. War has implications for everything else.
178
What is the political approach to the concept of war?
The most common approach, war is an act of violence intended to compel our opponents to fulfill our will, or an extension of politics.
179
What are the main types of wars?
Interstate, extra-state, internal
180
What is an interstate war?
When two or more national governments direct military forces against each other in organized, sustained, and oftentimes deadly clashes. Requires over 1,000 combat fatalities and to be over 12 months. from 1816-2007, there were 95 interstate wars.
181
What is an extra-state war?
A violent clash between a recognized state and an entity in a foreign territory that is not an internationally recognized state, or is a non state actor located in a foreign state.
182
What is an internal war?
A sustained clash between forces that are controlled by the national government and forces that are controlled by an organized group within the country. Between 1816 and 2007, there were 334 internal wars.
183
How is war an ambiguous concept?
Leaders are often reluctant to recognize a state of war (no official declaration), wars may overlap with other types of conflict (military interventions), the characteristics of wars have changed constantly as society has evolved, and the complex relationship between war, peace, and violence.
184
What is a military intervention?
Instances of international conflict in which the purposeful threat, display, or use of military force by official government channels is explicitly directed toward another state actor.
185
What is the relationship between war and peace?
Theoretically, there is a clear distinction between the two, but in practice it is more complex than assumed. For example, in times of peace, one prepares for war, and vice versa, most recent wars have ended inconclusively, peace goes beyond the absence of war, peace is not necessarily good, and peace itself is an elusive and political concept.
186
What is the relationship between war and violence?
Without violence, the study of war loses all focus, but physical violence goes beyond war, and scholars are still debating the meaning of the concept of violence itself.
187
What is structural violence?
When a person's bodily or mental potential is limited in a way that was preventable.
188
What is the Christian just war tradition?
Wars must have a just cause, must right a serious wrong, have a good prospect of success, to be used after exhausting all peaceful alternatives, conducted in a just manner, proportionate use of force, and spare civilians.
189
When does the UN say wars are allowed?
If in self-defense or authorized by the UNSC
190
What does the Geneva convention say about justness in war?
No torture, no mutilations, no attacks on the defenseless.
191
Can leaders keep war under control?
Wars trigger passion and furies, leaders lack control over the unfolding of a battle, leaders and troops make mistakes, enemies are smarter and more resilient than expected, political fractures can emerge, exhaustion of resources. Spiraling costs in blood, treasure, and opportunity.
192
Does superior military power guarantee victory?
Not necessarily
193
Why did the War in Afghanistan become difficult for the US?
The geography of Afghanistan made securing territory hard and gave limits on trade and development. Hostile neighbors could also interfere.
194
What are the main immediate causes of interstate wars?
Territory, scarce economic resources, disagreements over policy, and disagreements over political regime.
195
What is the individual level of analysis on the underlying causes of war?
Human nature, fear, stress, and excessive confidence in individual leaders.
196
What is the state level of analysis on the underlying causes of war?
Domestic political interests, nationalism, and institutions interested in war working through domestic processes.
197
What is the international level of analysis on the underlying causes of war?
Look at the consequences of international anarchy, like the number of great powers, the security dilemma, or a commitment problem.
198
When did humans invent war?
In 10,000 BC with hunter-gatherers, 8,000 BC with the first fortifications in Jericho, or the first millennium BC, with the first regular armies.
199
What has modern warfare been like?
State centralization, rising nationalism, rising population levels, and industrialization have all led to a rising potential for destruction.
200
What has industrial warfare been like?
For the first time, was became as deadly as disease and famine, with 10 M dead in WWI, 70 M dead in WWII, and nuclear deterrence in the Cold War
201
What has early 21st century warfare been like?
A growing role of women, a rise in gray zone operations, and a growing disconnect between societies and warfare.
202
What is a gray zone operation?
Calibrate actions to avoid provoking, or at least to lessen, a military response.
203
Why has there been a growing disconnect between societies and warfare in the West?
The end of conscription, the growing use of PMCs, and the decline of populations' participation in their leaders wars.
204
What do scholars predict future wars will be like?
Mostly urban warfare, to grow as the world urbanizes, new technologies, greater access to instruments of war (criminals, private firms, etc.), and further expansion beyond the battlefield.
205
What percent of the world's armed conflict has erupted within a state's border since 2007?
95%
206
What is a civil war?
A sustained clash between forces that are controlled by the national government and forces that are controlled by an organized group within the country. 92% of all internal wars.
207
What is an inter-communal war?
A war in which members of different religious communities in a country become embroiled in large scale organized violence.
208
What is an interfactional war?
Political factions fighting each other within one country.
209
What is an ethnic war?
A war with ethnic identity as a core driver
210
What is an ethnic group?
A contested concept, but one place to start is with what a group shares: a common name, a culture, historical memories, an attatchment to a particular piece of territory, and ascriptive membership
211
What is the primordial theory about the origins of ethnic groups?
Ethnic groups are thousands of years old, with family transmission, a desire to make group identity unchangeable, and ethnic rivalries based on ancient hatreds.
212
What is the instrumental theory about the origins of ethnic groups?
Leaders make ethnic arguments for political reasons, so ethnic identities are more fluid than assumed.
213
What is the social constructed identity theory of ethnic group creation?
The invention of tradition based on subjective beliefs grounded in myths, each ethnic group has a myth-symbol complex, each group has chosen traumas, and context can distort.
214
What is the instrumentalist approach to how ethnic conflicts start?
Focus on opportunities to start a war; pre-existing disputes, weak governments, and hostile geographic terrain.
215
What is the social mobilization approach to how ethnic conflicts start?
Focus on home groups form and mobilize: what is the role of leaders/parties/sects/brokers.
216
What is the social psychological approach to how ethnic conflicts start?
Focus on why people follow extremist leaders, so study the spread of group myths, prejudices, popular fears, and so on.
217
What is the political approach to how ethnic conflicts start?
Will the local government negotiate?
218
Why do some scholars say ethnic wars are not always about ethnicity?
They could be about grievance (have they been victimize or excluded), about greed, or about controlling local resources.
219
What happens when an ethnic conflict ends in a military victory?
One side achieves victory, 16/27 cases ended like this, but it means large scale violence and many agreements resulting from military victories collapse after a few years
220
What happens when an ethnic conflict results in a genuine political agreement?
There is power sharing, regional autonomy, and/or credible enforcement mechanisms. All voices are hears, and there is less of a chance of post-victory reprisals.
221
What is the ripe for resolution argument for how ethnic conflicts end?
Until a stalemate, military dynamics are key, after a stalemate, a genuine political agreement is key.
222
What are the international dimensions to civil wars?
Diasporas, refugees, diplomacy, deployment of UN peacekeepers, military interventions, and terrorists exploiting regional instability to spread their influence
