Exam 1 Flashcards
(241 cards)
1
Q
What are the 4 key Concepts for biological organisms?
A
1: Relationship between structure and function
2: chemicals move along concentration gradients
3: cells communicate with each other
4: feedback loops maintain homeostasis
2
Q
What is Anatomy?
A
The study of body parts/structure.
-what is is made of? How does it look?
-Greek for “to cut”/dissect
3
Q
What is Physiology?
A
The study of function/activty
-what does it do? Whats its job?
4
Q
Structure and function are ___ with each other?
A
Complementary!
“Structure determines function”
5
Q
What is developmental anatomy?
A
-structural changes that occur from conception to adulthood (whole lifespan)
-a subtype: EMBRYONIC development, which is only from conception to birth
6
Q
What is gross anatomy?
A
MACROSCOPIC: can be seen with the naked eye
7
Q
What are the three main ways to look at anatomy?
A
1: Systemic anatomy: study body by each individual system
2: Regional Anatomy: study everything that is in a certain region of the body
3: Surface anatomy: study surface of skin and appearance of structures (ex: protruding bones)
8
Q
What is Microscopic Anatomy?
A
You must use a microscope to see structures! Not with naked eye!
Ex: cytology and histology
9
Q
What are Cytology and Histology?
A
Cytology: study of cells
Histology: study of tissues
10
Q
What is Tomographic Anatomy?
A
Medical imaging (CT scan)= computer analyzed images
(Makes 3D body scan)
11
Q
What does Pathologic anatomy do?
A
Studies Diseases: what causes it and what it does
12
Q
What are the six organization levels for anatomy?
A
1: Chemical level (atoms)
2: Cellular level (the cell)
3:Tissue level
4: Organ level
5: Organ system level
6: Organism (the whole being)
13
Q
What is the basic structural and functional unit of life?
A
The cell
14
Q
How many organs systems are there total?
A
11
15
Q
What are the 11 organs systems?
A
1: Integumentary
2: Skeletal
3: Muscular
4: Nervous/special senses
5: Endocrine
6: Cardiovascular
7: Lymphatic/immune
8: Respiratory
9: Digestive
10: Urinary (Renal)
11: Reproductive
16
Q
What are the parts of the integumentary system?
A
Skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
-provides protection
17
Q
What are the parts of the skeletal system and what is its purpose?
A
-Provides structure and support
-Bones, cartilage, ligaments, joints
18
Q
What is the purpose of the muscular system and what is it made of?
A
-body movements and posture
-Muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons
19
Q
What’s the purpose of the nervous system and what is it made of?
A
-controls the body by sensations and intellectual functions
-Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
20
Q
What is the purpose of the endocrine system and what is it made of?
A
-regulatory system for metabolism, growth, reproduction, etc.
-Glands such as the pituitary
21
Q
What is the purpose of the cardiovascular system and what is it made of?
A
-transport, nutrients, waste, products, etc. through the body
-the heart, blood vessels and blood
22
Q
What is the purpose of the lymphatic system and what is it made of?
A
-Filters the blood
-lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphatic organs
23
Q
What is the purpose of the respiratory system and what is it made of?
A
-exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide (oxygenate the blood)
-Lungs and respiratory passages
24
Q
What is the purpose of the digestive system and what is it made of?
A
-Digestion and absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste
-mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs, such as gallbladder
25
What is the purpose of the urinary system and what is it made of?
-removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH
-Kidneys, urinary bladder and urine ducts
26
What’s the point of homeostasis?
To to have balance for the body maintaining a constant internal environment
27
Negative versus positive feedback loops?
Negative: “see saw” to keep response at set point (ex: body temp regulation)
Positive: continued response until original stimulus is removed (ex: birth of baby)
28
What is orthostatic hypotension?
When someone stands up, their blood pressure drops and they are likely to faint
-treat: replace fluids, slow to rise
29
What is the anatomical position?
Stand direct face forward, arms hanging outside palms downward (like da Vinci’s man but with arms down)
30
Supine versus prone?
Supine: lying facing upward
Prone : lying facing down
31
What do directional terms do?
Describe body parts in relation to other body parts
32
Superior/cephalic versus inferior/Caudal?
Superior/cephalic= above/towards the head
Inferior/caudal = below/towards the tail
33
Anterior versus posterior?
Anterior: front
Posterior: back
34
Ventral versus dorsal?
Ventral: belly
Dorsal: back
(In humans, these are equivalent to anterior and posterior)
35
Proximal versus distal?
Proximal: close to
Distal: far away
36
Medial versus lateral?
Medial: going towards the midline
Lateral: further away from the midline
37
Superficial versus deep?
Superficial: towards surface
Deep: deeper into the body
38
Why is it important to be aware of the correct right and left?
Because you’re referring to their left and right, not mine
39
What does ipsilateral mean?
If a stimulus is given, the response/ structures are seen on the same side
“Ipsi” means same!
Ex: shine light into left pupil, left pupil will constrict
40
What does contralateral mean?
Do a stimulus, response and structures are on the opposite side of the body
“Contra” means opposite
Ex: shine light in left eye, the right will constrict
41
What is the name for the area around the forehead?
The frontal area
42
What’s the name for the area around the eye?
The orbital area
43
What’s the name for the area around the nose?
The nasal area
44
What’s the name for the area around the mouth?
The oral area
45
What’s the name for the area around the ear?
The Otic area
46
What’s the name for the area around the cheek?
The buccal area
47
What’s the name for the area around the chin?
The mental area
(Think of the “thinker” statue with his hand on his chin)
48
What’s the name for the area around the neck?
The cervical area
49
What’s the name for the area around the collarbone?
The clavicular area
50
What’s the name for the area around the armpit?
The axillary area
51
What’s the name for the area around the upper arm?
The brachial area
52
What’s the name for the area in front of the elbow?
The antecubital area
53
What’s the name of the area by the forearm?
The antebrachial area
54
What’s the name of the area by the wrist?
The carpal area
55
What’s the name of the area by the hand?
The manual area
56
What’s the name of the area by the thumb?
The pollex area
57
What’s the name of the area by the palm?
The Palmar area
58
What’s the name of the area by the fingers?
The digital area
59
What’s the name of the area by the hip?
The Coxal area ( named after coxa bones there)
60
What’s the name of the area around the thigh?
The femoral area
61
What’s the name of of the area by the kneecap?
The patellar area
62
What’s the area of the name by the leg?
The crural area
63
What’s the name of the area that’s by the foot?
The pedal area
64
What’s the name of the area that’s by the ankle?
The talus area
65
What’s the area that’s by the top of the foot?
The dorsum area
66
What’s the name of the area that’s by the toes?
The digital area
67
What’s the name of the area that’s by the big toe?
The hallux area
68
What’s the name of the area that’s by the upper trunk?
The thoracic area
69
What’s the name of the area that’s by the chest?
The pectoral area
70
What’s the name of the area that’s by your sternum?
The sternal area
71
What’s the name of the area that’s by the breasts?
The mammary area
72
What’s the name of the area that’s by your abdomen?
The abdominal area
73
What’s the name of the area that’s by your belly button?
The umbilical area
74
What’s the name of the area that’s by your pelvis?
The pelvic area
75
What’s the name of the area that’s by your groin? (V-line)
The Inguinal area
76
What’s the name of the area that’s by your genitals?
The pubic area
77
What’s the name for the area of the back?
The dorsal area
78
What’s the name for the area of the base of the skull?
The occipital area
79
What’s the name for the area of the the back of the neck?
The nuchal area
80
What’s the name for the area of the shoulder blade?
The scapular area
81
What’s the name for the area of the spinal column?
The vertebral area
82
What’s the name for the area of the small of the back?
The lumbar area
83
What’s the name for the area between the hips?
The sacral area (the butt crack)
84
What’s the name of of the area by your butt?
The gluteal area
85
What’s the name of the area by your genitalia and butt hole?
The perineal area
86
What’s the name of the area by your brain?
The cranial area (cranial surrounds brain only, the skull includes the face)
87
What’s the name of the area around the point of the shoulder?
The acromial area
88
What’s the name of the area by the point of the elbow?
The Olecranon area (the antecubital area is in the front)
89
What’s the name of the area by the back of the hand?
The dorsum area
90
What’s the name of the area of the hollow behind the knee?
The popliteal area (the patella is in front)
91
What’s the name of the area by the calf?
The Sural area
92
What’s the name of the area on the bottom of the foot?
The plantar area
93
What’s the name of the area by the heel?
The Calcaneal area
94
What’s a major organ in each of the four quadrants?
Right upper: Gall bladder
Right lower: Appendix
Left upper: spleen
Left lower: small/large intestines
95
What are the six anatomical regions?
Right hypochondriac region (right up)
Right lumbar region (right mid)
Right iliac region (right low)
Epigastric region (mid up)
Umbilical region (mid)
Hypogastric region (mid low)
Left hypochondriac region (left up)
Left lumbar region (left mid)
Left iliac region (left low)
96
What is the Sagittal plane?
Slicing down the body from the head to divide it into left and right parts
(Assumed uneven unless “mid” is present)
97
Midsagittal versus Parasagittal?
Midsagittal: divided into even left and right parts
ParaSagittal: divided into uneven left and right parts
98
What is the transverse body plane?
When cut to divide top and bottom (horizontal slice through belly)
99
What is the frontal (coronal) body plane?
Body is divided into front and back
100
What is the oblique plane?
-not at all right angle with the other planes
-used in medical imaging to see specialized structures
ex: required to view kidney
101
Longitudinal section versus Transverse (cross) section?
Longitudinal: “goes along” with an organ, cut along the length of the organ
Transverse/cross: cut at right angle to length of organ
102
What are the two main body cavities and what do they consist of?
1.) Dorsal: cranial and vertebral subunits (brain and spinal chord)
2.) Ventral: Thoracic and Abdominopelvic (lungs, hear, Stomach, intestines, ureter, gonad)
103
What are the subparts of the central body cavity?
Mediastinum, thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity
104
What are the subparts of the dorsal body cavity?
The cranial cavity and the vertebral canal
105
What is a serous membrane?
A double layered membrane that lines the walls of body cavities and surface of internal organs
106
What are the layers in a body cavity?
Visceral layer: inner, attached to organ surface
Parietal layer: outer, lines the cavity wall
(In between these two is accumulated serous fluid secreted by both membranes and kept at the right amount to prevent friction/rubbing/pain)
107
What is the cavity that houses the lungs?
The pleural cavity
108
What is the cavity that houses the heart?
The pericardial cavity
109
What is the cavity that houses the internal organs?
Peritoneal cavity
110
What is the cavity that houses the posterior body wall with the Kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, and bladder?
The retroperitoneum
111
What are the 3 names for the three layers for the cavity that hold the lungs?
1: visceral pleura layer
2: pleural cavity
3: parietal pleural layer
112
What are the 3 names for the 3 layers of the cavity that holds the heart?
1: visceral pericardium layer
2: pericardial cavity
3: parietal pericardium layer
113
What are the 3 names for the 3 layers of the cavity that hold the majority of the internal organs?
1: visceral peritoneum layer
2: peritoneal cavity
3: parietal peritoneum layer
114
What is going on with the cavity layers when inflammation occurs?
There is the wrong amount of fluid and membranes rub and cause pain!
115
What is pleurisy?
Inflammation of the pleura (lungs)
116
What is pericarditis?
Inflammation of the pericardium (heart)
117
What is peritonitis?
Inflammation of the peritoneum (abdominal cavity)
118
What is the case study example for pericarditis?
Fluid accumulation in Sac causes increased pressure upon the heart (Cardiac Tamponade) which restricts the heart from pumping effectively.
-causes: MI, tumor, radiation damage, physical trauma to cause bleed to pericardium
-treatment: drain fluid out of
119
What is a dehydration synthesis? (A type of synthesis reaction)
-Anabolic: 2+ reactants form a larger product
-requires energy (endergonic)
-water released as reactants combine
120
What is a Hydrolysis reaction? (A type of decomposition reaction)
-Catabolic: breaks down molecule into subunits
-releases energy (exergonic)
-requires water
121
What are the 4 major groups of organic molecules necessary for life?
1: Carbohydrates (provide and store energy)
2: Lipids (membranes and insulate body)
3: Proteins (many jobs)
4: Nucleic acids (genetic material and protein synthesis)
122
What are the 3 types of carbohydrates?
1: monosaccharides (monomer)
-ex: glucose
2: Disaccharides (dimer)
-ex: glucose + fructose
3: Polysaccharides (polymer)
-ex: cellulose, starch, glycogen
123
What are 2 types of lipids?
1: Triglycerides (common body fat) = glycerol + 3 fatty acids
2: Steroids = 4 ring hormones that come from cholesterol
124
How many amino acids are essential to the body?
9 out of 21 cannot be synthesized, must be taken in diet
125
What are Nucleic Acids composed of?
C, H, O, N, P
-monomers =nucleotides
Made up of: 1.) monosaccharide (deoxyribose or ribose) 2.) Nitogeneous base 3.) Phosphate group
126
What can diffuse through the PM?
small or non polar things!
(Ex: Oxy, CO2, steroids, H2O)
127
Integral versus Peripheral membrane proteins?
Integral: transmembrane, transporters
Peripheral: attached to one side of surface
128
What does the Cytoskeleton do?
Structural support, generates movement
129
3 parts of the cytoskeleton?
1: Microtubules: Intracellular movement
2: Actin: movement and support
3: intermediate filament: strength
130
What do Peroxisomes do?
Contain enzyme that breaks down FA’s and AA’s to H/O and Oxygen
-found in liver and kidney cells
131
What are the 3 hairlike specifications?
1: Cilia: “hair seen on surface of cells”, moved mucus out of respiratory tract. Respiratory and female reproductive tract
2: flagella: long projection, seen on sperm cells. Allow movement for fertilization.
3: microvilli: seen on apical/top surface. Increase surface area for absorption surface looks fuzzy under microscope.
132
What are the two fluid compartments?
1: Intracellular Fluid (ICF)= fluid in cytoplasm, largest: 2/3 of body fluid
2: extracellular fluid (ECF)= fluid outside of cells, 1/3 of body fluid
133
What is the composition of extracellular fluid?
80% is interstitial fluid, includes lymphatic vessels
20% is plasma volume in the bloodstream
134
What fluid shift occurs with exercising?
When exercising: fluid goes from blood to interstitial fluid (IF)
Stop exercise : fluid goes back from interstitial fluid (IF) to blood
135
What are the three primary germ layers that arise during gastrulation?
1: endoderm= inner layer: GI tract, respiratory, thyroid/pancreas
2: mesoderm= middle layer: muscular and skeletal system, dermis of skin
3: ectoderm= outer layer: gives rise to epidermis and all nervous tissue (outermost, part and innermost part of body)
136
What are the four primary tissue types?
1: epithelial= covers body surfaces, avascular
2: connective tissue = provide support, blood and adipose tissue
3: muscle tissue= allows movement and bodily functions
4: nervous tissue= makes up neurons
137
What are some characteristics of epithelial tissue?
-predominantly cells
-apical surface is next to free space, basal surface anchors to basement membrane (CT)
-Capable of regeneration (mitosis)
138
What are the three functions of cell connections?
1: mechanically bind cells together
2: form permeability barrier
3: mechanism for intercellular communication
139
What are the six cell connection types?
1: desmosomes (bind)
2: hemidesmosomes (anchor)
3: tight junctions (barrier)
4: adhesion belts (help tight junctions)
5: gap junctions (communication)
6: intercalated discs (cardiac muscle)
140
What is the role of a desmosome?
To bind cells together in an area of mechanical stress
-Tight fit, but not too tight so that there is flexibility
(Ex: epidermis)
141
What is the role of a hemi desmosome?
To bind cells to basement membrane (basal side)
-Anchors to prevent unwanted movement of cells
142
What is the role of tight junctions?
To anchor cells to each other so tightly that it forms barriers so nothing can get in between the cells
-Found in columnar cells in G.I., prevent leaky gut
143
What is the role of adhesion belts?
They are just below tight junctions and help tight junctions anchor epithelial cells to each other
144
What is the role of gap junctions?
To allow for communication (intercellular) via protein channels that allow small molecules to go between cells
145
What is the role of intercalated discs?
Found in cardiac muscle electrical signaling consist of gap junctions and desmosomes that maintain cell contact with one another.
“ boundaries of cardiac muscle cells”
-Have branching to allow electrical signaling
146
What are some common functions of epithelial tissue?
Protection, barrier (keratin= waterproofing), diffusion (gas), filtration (kidneys), secretion (mucus), absorption
147
What are three specializations of epithelial tissue?
1: goblet cells: secrete mucus to trap pathogens
2: Cilia: hairs on apical surface to move mucus
3: microvilli: apical surface to increase absorption (appears as fuzzy edge)
(1 and 2 = respiratory tract)
148
What does simple versus stratified epithelium mean?
Simple: one layer
Stratified : two layers
149
What are the three shapes that can be paired with a simple or stratified cells?
1: squamous
2: cuboidal
3: columnar
150
What is pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
-a type of columnar epithelium
-looks like multiple layers, but really only is one layer
-if there is cilia or microvilli and it is pseudo and not actually stratified!
-job: making and secreting mucus. Found in nasal cavity pharynx, trachea, and bronchus.
151
What is simple squamous epithelium?
One layer of flat cells, lots of surface area to aid in gases diffusing
-Found in the heart and blood vessels, LUNGS, kidneys, and Pleural membrane linings
152
What is simple cuboidal epithelium?
One layer of cube shaped cells
-Max cell volume with minimal surface area
-secretion/absorption by kidney tubes, secretion by glands
153
What is simple columnar epithelium?
-one layer of columnar cells
-Have Cilia and lungs and uterine tubes, are microvilli in intestines
-aids in absorption by intestines because max surface area
154
What is stratified squamous epithelium?
-several layers of stratified cells
-role in protection from abrasion and reduces water loss from body
-Found in skin (keratinized) and mouth, throat, anus, and vagina (non-keratinized)
155
What is transitional epithelium?
-stratified cells that look cuboidal when not stretched and squamous when distended by fluid
-looks crazier as goes from top to bottom
-Found in bladder, helps accommodate fluid volume
156
What is connective tissue?
The most abundant widespread and diverse tissue type
-Contributes to every organ in our body
-Present and extracellular matrix
157
What is main function of connective tissue?
Surround and protect, organize, connect things, protects against microbes with bone and immune cells and bone
158
What are three common suffixes that classify connective tissue cells?
1: blasts= give rise to matrix (build)
2: cytes= maintain the matrix
3: clasts = breakdown the matrix to enable remodeling
159
What are three common prefixes that are used to describe a certain connective tissue cells?
1: Osteo= bone
2: Chondro = cartilage
3: Fibro = fibrous tissue
Ex: “osteocytes” = bone cells!
160
What are five examples of CT cells?
1: adipocytes= “ fat cell” so much lipid storage that nucleus is at periphery
2: mast cells= release histamines and heparin
3: white blood cells (in blood)/macrophages (in tissues)
4: platelets= clot blood
5: Mesenchymal (undifferentiated) = adult stem cells in CT, specialize in response to injury
161
What is the extracellular matrix (ECM)?
Nonliving matrix of connective tissue
-Made up of hyaluronic acid (lube), fibrous components (collagen), Elastin (elasticity = stretch and recoil), and reticular (thin collagen)
162
What is the most abundant protein in the body?
Collagen!
-Known for strength and stability
163
What are the three substances that make up the extra cellular matrix?
1: hyaluronic acid (lube)
2: Fiber components: collagen, Elastin, and Reticular
164
Where does all connective tissue come from?
Embryonic/Mesenchyme tissue
-consists of fibroblasts, develops in embryo
-develops from MESODERM
165
What are the four basic types of adult connective tissue?
1: CT proper: loose (Areolar, Adipose, Reticular)
2: Dense: fibers (dense regular, dense irregular, elastic CT)
3: Support: Cartilage (Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage) and Bone
4: specialized: blood
166
What is Areolar CT?
Most widely distributed CT
-Forms membranes, surrounds organs, forms basement membrane in epithelium
-CT proper: loose
167
What is adipose CT?
Fat, under skin, surrounds organ
-nonliving matrix inside cells
-High amount in renal area and behind the eye
-CT proper: loose
168
What is reticular CT?
Supports organ structures, provides shape, and maintains organs
-Thin spiderweb like fibers
-CT proper: loose!
169
What is dense regular CT?
Dense/tightly packed collagen fibers
-nuclei are small and squished in between so many collagen fibers
-Seen in tendons and ligaments bc strength
(Very little blood supply, which is why it’s better to break a bone than tear a ligament)
170
What is dense irregular CT?
Densely packed collagen fibers, but in a weird irregular shape
-Fibers run in different directions, which looks odd but has more give, which makes it more resistant to tear
-Found in joint capsules
171
What is elastic CT?
Densely packed elastic fibers
-allows, stretch and recoil because very wavy
-Found in elastic arteries and vocal cords
-No collagen present
(Dense CT)
172
What is cartilage?
A type of supporting CT!
-avascular, so heals insanely slowly
-has three sub types: hyaline, elastic, and Fibrocartilage
173
What are the three types of cartilage?
1: HYALINE: major component is Hyaluronic acid (lube)
-strong and unmoving!
-every cartilage except 2&3,for ex: ends of bones, in rib cage, nose
2: ELASTIC: (cartilage)elastic fibers, flexible, ear and epiglottis (E is e and e)
3: FIBROCARTILAGE: collagen fibers, flexible, cushioning lubricant, ex: pubic symphysis (birth), Knee meniscus, Intervertebral discs
174
What is Bone?
A type of supporting CT! (Along with cartilage)
175
What is compact vs spongy bone?
Compact: hard/solid, stores calcium, middle of bone, high blood supply, stores fat
Spongy: Trabeculae (space) at ends of bone where bone grows
176
What is blood?
Special CT category!
-produced in bone marrow
-consists of RBC, WBC, and platelets
-no nucleus in RBC, need make more from marrow
177
What are the 3 types of muscle?
1: Smooth= walls of hollow organs, 1 nucleus per cell
2: Skeletal: voluntary control, multinucleated (many nuclei in 1 cell, very long), striations
3: Cardiac: striations and intercalated discs, 1 nucleus per cell, heart pump
178
What does the Integumentary system consist of?
Skin and accessory structures such as hair, glands, and nails
179
What are the major functions of the integumentary system?
1: Protection (minimize UV/MOs)
2: Barrier (keratin)
3: sensation/temp regulate
4:excretion of waste
5: produce vitamin D
180
What are the two layers of the skin?
1: the epidermis
-Stratified squamous epithelial tissue
-nonvascular
-keratin, rapid cell division
2: dermis
-“ true skin” Good blood supply
-dense irregular CT
-hair roots here
- elasticity decreases with age
181
What is the hypodermis?
AKA “ subcutaneous tissue”
-Not part of skin, below skin!
-Acts to insulate and protect from below
-adipose tissue
182
What are sebaceous glands?
Glands that are found in the dermis
-Release oil that lubricates hair plus skin
183
What are Arrector Pili (smooth muscle)?
Smooth muscle found in the dermis that caused goosebumps when cold
184
What are sweat glands (sudoriferous)?
Begin in the dermis and go up to the epidermis to release sweat
-Origin comes from the bloodstream
185
What are the four types of epidermal cells?
1: keratinocytes
2: melanocytes
3: langerhans cell
4: Merkel cells
186
What are keratinocytes?
-Most prevalent cell type of epidermis
-Often dead, external epithelial cells
-Have keratin to: resist friction/abrasion and water loss (WATERPROOF)
187
What is psoriasis?
-Can be genetic, instead of keratinocytes that are dead being sloughed off the layers pile up
188
What are melanocytes?
A type of epidermal cell
-Produce melanin pigment, which causes skin color, protects from UV, and tans
-25% of last layer of cells in epidermis are Melanocytes
189
What are Langerhans Cells?
Stationary epidermal cells
-macrophages that phagocytose things as they pass
190
What are Merkel cells?
A type of epidermal cell
-Specialize cells with nerve endings
-In the deepest layer of epidermis, detects light touch and surface pressure
191
What is the first layer of the epidermis?
-Stratum corneum: superficial layer, 25+ layers thick, slough, horny cells (dead keratinocytes)
192
What is Stratum lucidum?
The second layer of the epidermis
-A thin clear zone of epidermis, only found in thick skin like the soles of feet and hand calluses
-More layers of protection for extra mechanical help
193
What is Stratum Granulosum?
The third layer of the epidermis
-up to 5 layers of granulated cells
194
What is Stratum Spinosum?
The fourth layer of the epidermis
-8-10 layers, looks spiny
-mitosis occurring here because cells are still alive
195
What is the Stratum Basale?
The deepest layer of the Epidermis
-AKA “Stratum germinativum” bc everything else arises from here
-single base layer
-Anchored to the basement membrane via HEMIDESMOSOMES
-mitosis Q19D
-MERKEL CELLS and 1:4 MELANOCYTES in this layer
196
Thin versus thick skin?
Thick skin: five layers (includes stratum lucidum)
-Palms, soles, and fingertips
Thin skin : four layers
-more flexible
197
What are two things that affect thick and thin skin?
1: Callus (stratum corneum increases in thickness, more layers for mechanical stress)
2: Corn (seen in body prominence area, apex deep in epidermis)
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What is melanin?
A major pigment that contributes to color
-Found in skin, hair, eye color
-protect DNA from UV damage by removing free radicals and boosting antioxidants
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How is melanin produced?
A tyrosine amino acid is changed to melanin by enzyme Tyrosinase
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How is melanin distributed to the cells of the epidermis?
1: Melanocytes produce and package into vesicles (Melanosomes)
2: Melanosomes move into cell processes of Melanocytes
3: Tips of Melanocyte cell processes are phagocytosed (absorbed) by Keratinocytes in order to acquire Melanosomes
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What is degree of melanin production influenced by?
Light exposure, genetics, and hormones!
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What number of melanocytes are humans born with?
The same amount for everyone!
-25% of the bottom layer
(How active these cells are is what determines your color)
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How do we get racial color variation?
Differences in type of melanin, amount and distribution of melanosomes produced,
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Eumelanin versus Pheomelanin?
Eumelanin: “true melanin” brown, and black skin and hair
Pheomelanin: lips, nipples, pink parts of body
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What causes red hair?
Equal amounts of Eumelanin and Pheomelanin
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Why are some people albino?
They lack Tyrosinase! Without this enzyme Tyrosine cannot be turned into melanin, so there is no skin pigment
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What is carotene?
Yellow pigment implants (carrots/vitamin A)
-Yellow tint is seen with increased consumption
-carotene versus Jaundice = if whites of eyes are still white means carotene!
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What effect does hemoglobin have on skin color?
It gives a pinkish hue due to oxygenated, pigments and red blood cells (which go through dermal capillaries)
-Easier to see in light skinned people due to lack of melanin
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What are the four ways that hemoglobin levels can be messed up in terms of skin color?
1: Lack of= Pallor, low BP/anemia
2: cyanosis = (blueish discoloration) due to lack of oxygen (Respiratory or CV disorder)
3: Erythema = increase due to sunburn, infection, allergic reaction, hot flashes
4: bruise (Ecchymosis) = Red, blue, yellow as fade. Due to blood vessel damage
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What are the most prevalent fibers in the dermis?
Collagen fibers!
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What are the three main cells that make up the dermis?
Fibroblasts, Adipocytes, Macrophages
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What are the two layers of the dermis and what type of CT are they?
1: Papillary = thin upper layer. LOOSE CT
2: Reticular = deep lower layer. DENSE IRREGULAR CT
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What are the two things that are found in the papillary layer of the dermis?
1: Meissner’s corpuscles (touch sensors)
2: Epidermal ridges (fingerprints/grip)
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What are the three things that are found in the Reticular layer of the dermis?
1: Pacinian Corpuscles (bottom of layer, detect deep pressure)
2: Cleavage lines (tension- the lines you want to make your incisions in line with)
3: Stretch Marks (Striae- areas of rapid growth)
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What is the job of the hypodermis?
To insulate, pad, protect, and attach skin to underlying bone and muscle!
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What 3 cells are found in the Subcutaneous tissue/hypodermis?
Fibroblasts, Adipocytes, and macrophages
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What are the 3 types of injections?
1: Intradermal: goes into the dermis, slight angle (TB test)
2: Subcutaneous: goes into hypodermis, 60 degree angle (insulin)
3: Intramuscular: goes into muscle, 90 degree angle (vaccinations)
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What are the 3 accessory structures that are embedded within the skin?
1: Hair (pili)
2: Nails
3: Glands (of all kinds)
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What is Hair (pili)? What are the three parts it’s composed of?
Flexible, dead protein strands!
Composed of the shaft (above skin), root (below skin), and bulb (base of root)
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What are the 3 layers of hair/keratin?
1: Medulla (intermost)
2: Cortex (middle)
3: Cuticle (outermost)
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What are the 4 types of glands found in the dermis?
1: Sweat glands (two types Eccrine and Apocrine)
2: Sebaceous (softens hair, kills bacteria)
3: Mammary glands (lactation)
4: Ceruminous (ear wax)
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What are the two types of sweat glands?
1: Eccrine (trad sweat) cools body, axillae bc of emotions, sweaty palms
2: Apocrine (in axillae and anogenital region) no odor + bacteria = body odor (deeper in tissue)
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What are the four ways one can get burned?
1: heat
2: electricity
3: radiation
4: chemicals
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What is the chain of events that happens when someone gets a bad burn?
Lose body fluids -> dehydration -> electrolyte imbalance -> renal shut down
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What is the rule of 9s?
It determines the % loss of skin due to burns
-11 areas with parallel areas (9% each) and genitals are 1%
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What are the 11 (really just 7) areas in the rule of 9s?
Head and neck: whole is 9%
Entire right arm: 9%
Entire left arm: 9%
Entire trunk: 36%
Groin: 1%
Entire right leg: 18%
Entire left leg: 18%
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Partial thickness versus full thickness burns?
Partial thickness: 1st or 2nd degree
Full thickness: 3rd or 4th degree (very bad!)
228
What are the 4 degrees of burns?
1st: ONLY epidermis, local redness, pain, 2-3 days (sunburn)
2nd: Epidermis and upper dermis: red, pain, blister, heal in 3-4 weeks
3rd: Epidermis/dermis and into hypodermis, (blanched, black, or cherry red), NO PAIN, skin graft
4th: very severe, past Sub Q and into muscle and bone underneath, maybe amputation
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What is the most common cause of cancer?
Skin cancer! (20%)
230
What causes skin cancer?
Exposure to UV rays from tanning/sunburn
-also chemicals, xrays, immune system compromise
231
What are the 3 types of skin cancer?
Basal cell carcinoma, Squamous cell carcinoma, Malignant Melanoma
232
What’s a Basal cell carcinoma?
It’s when the Stratum Basale (bottom layer of epidermis) is altered, and proliferates into the dermis and hypodermis
-most common type, 80% of skin cancer
-least malignant
-appears shiny, central ulcer with pearly edge
-cured with surgery
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What’s a Squamous cell carcinoma?
When the Stratum Spinosum Keratinocytes are altered.
-2nd most common, grows fast and metastasizes
-scaly, red raised papule
-repeating open sore that may bleed
-often on head and hands
-surgery or radiation
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What does a Basal cell carcinoma look like?
Waxy bump with blood vessels present
235
What does a Squamous cell carcinoma look like?
Red pimple/nodule and scaly patch that keeps getting upset
236
What does a malignant melanoma look like?
Odd shape with dark color
-can come from preexisting mole
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What are Malignant Melanomas?
Not common, often arise from pre existing moles
-highly metastasize, resists chemo
-it’s when MELANOCYTES become cancerous
-wide surgery excision required
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What is the ABCDE rule for early detection of melanomas?
A= Asymmetry/uneven appearance
B= Border irregularities/“fuzzy borders”
C= Color (3+ colors)
D= Diameter (greater than 6mm)
E= Evolving/Elevation, if its changing or elevating above the surface
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What are the 5 layers of the Epidermis?
1: Stratum Corneum
2: Stratum Lucidum
3: Stratum Granulosum
4: Stratum Spinosum
5: Stratum Basale
(C L G, S B)
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What’s special about Stratum Basale?
Single base layer, anchors to basement membrane. (Hemidesmosomes)
-MITOSIS EVERY 19 DAYS
-MERKEL CELLS AND MELANOCYTES IN THIS LAYER
241
Exocrine verses Endocrine glands?
Endocrine: goes into bloodstream
Exocrine: secreted to surface/local area
