Exam 1 Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
monism
A
mind and body are single substance
2
Q
idealistic monism vs. materialistic monism
A
idealistic: all nonphysical
materialistic: physical – mind and body are the same (if something is wrong with the mind you’ll find it in the brain)
3
Q
dualism
A
mind and body are separate (brain = material, mind = nonmaterial)
4
Q
interactionism
A
the mental state can influence physical state and vice-versa (ex. broken heart syndrome)
5
Q
ontogeny
A
the process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime (grows up, grows old, dies)
6
Q
proximate questions
A
questions about the physical interactions that control a particular behavior (how)
7
Q
ultimate questions
A
questions that focus on historical (evolutionary) explanations (why)
8
Q
conserved characteristics
A
traits that are passed on from a common ancestor to two or more descendant species
9
Q
what percent of the population suffers from a mental disorder in a typical year
A
38%
10
Q
what percent of people currently have neurological and/or psychiatric disorders that vary in severity
A
20%
11
Q
Galen
A
Greco-Romanian physician that treated gladiators
- recognized the brain’s importance
- reported that head injuries caused behavioral changes -> realized that the brain is the controller of behavior
12
Q
Rene Descartes
A
- wrote De Homine, a book where he tried to explain the behavior of animals/humans like the workings of a machine
- proposed the concept of spinal reflexes and a neural pathway
13
Q
phrenology
A
old-fashioned belief that bumps on the skull reflect brain regions responsible for certain behavioral faculties
14
Q
Paul Broca
A
French surgeon who recognized that language was localized in a restricted brain region
15
Q
Broca’s area
A
area of the brain responsible for speech production (frontal lobe, left side)
16
Q
Abu al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi
A
“father of modern surgery”
observed neurological patients and performed surgeries
17
Q
Ibn-Sina
A
“father of modern medicine”
wrote “The Canon of Medicine” which became standard medical text until 1650
18
Q
Hermann von Helmholtz
A
measured the speed of nerve conduction, discovering it was much slower than the speed of electricity, revolutionizing the understanding of neural transmission
19
Q
localization
A
The brain has distinct areas responsible for specific functions, like movement, language, and sensory processing
20
Q
distribution of function
A
The brain operates as a whole, with no strict localization of functions
21
Q
Carl Wernicke
A
Discovered Wernicke’s area, complementing Broca’s findings and further strengthening the localization theory
22
Q
Wernicke’s area
A
controls the ability to understand the meaning of words
23
Q
aphasia
A
damage to a small area of the brain that results in specific impairments in language production
24
Q
resting potential outside & inside the cell
A
- Outside (Extracellular): Positively charged (due to Na⁺ and Cl⁻).
- Inside (Cytoplasmic): Negatively charged (due to K⁺ and A⁻ proteins).
25
Luigi Galvani
discovered that electrical stimulation could activate nerves and muscles, laying the groundwork for understanding neural conductivity
26
Franz Joseph Gall
proposed the localization theory with his belief that mental functions are localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex
27
membrane potential (Vm) for neuron at rest
-70 mV
28
what CAN diffuse across the membrane?
small uncharged molecules (like O₂ and CO₂) and hydrophilic lipids
29
what CAN'T diffuse across the membrane
charged molecules (ions) -- they require channels to move across
30
why do neurons have a polarized membrane?
due to unequal distribution of ions.
31
which neurological disorder has the highest prevalence in the United States?
stroke
32
dendritic spines can change shape in the course of
seconds
33
reductionism
the scientific strategy of breaking a system down into increasingly smaller parts in order to understand it
34
somatic intervention
an approach to finding relations between body and behavior that involves manipulating body structure or function and looking for resultant changes in behavior.
35
behavioral intervention
an approach to finding relations between body and behavior that involves intervening in the behavior of an organism and looking for resultant changes in body structure or function.
36
choroid plexus
the specialized vascular tissue that produces the cerebrospinal fluid
37
fMRI is said to be like PET because
it can provide information about activity in addition to structure.
38
blood-brain barrier
a property of the closely packed endothelial cells of the walls of brain capillaries that prevents large molecules from entering the brain.
39
Sylvian fissure/lateral sulcus
separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes
40
almost all incoming sensory information passes through the _______, which sends the information on to the overlying cortex.
thalamus
41
Which imaging technology could provide a physician with a very high-resolution image of the thalamus?
MRI
42
ventral roots of the spinal cord
carry motor information to muscles
43
most neurons are classified as
interneurons
44
Precentral gyrus
region of the cortex that's crucial for motor control
45
basal ganglia are particularly implicated in
motor control
46
The three main components of the peripheral nervous system are the _______ nerves, the _______ nerves, and the _______ nervous system.
cranial, spinal, autonomic
47
ion distribution during resting potential
K⁺ (Potassium): High inside, low outside.
Na⁺ (Sodium): High outside, low inside.
Cl⁻ (Chloride): High outside, low inside.
A⁻ (Anions/Proteins): High inside, almost absent outside.
48
K⁺ leak channels
allow K⁺ to flow out, contributing to the resting membrane potential.
49
Na⁺ leak channels
less abundant but allow some Na⁺ to flow into the neuron
50
carrier-mediated transport
transport of larger molecules (like glucose) via carrier proteins.
51
sodium-potassium pump (active transport)
requires ATP to pump 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in, maintaining the resting membrane potential.
52
potassium's diffusion + electrostatic force
Diffusion Force: K⁺ moves out due to the high internal concentration.
Electrostatic Force: Negative charges inside the neuron pull K⁺ back in.
53
sodium's diffusion + electrostatic force
Diffusion Force: Na⁺ moves into the neuron (high outside, low inside).
Electrostatic Force: Na⁺ is attracted to the negative interior of the neuron.
54
chloride's diffusion + electrostatic force
Diffusion Force: Cl⁻ wants to enter the neuron (high outside, low inside).
Electrostatic Force: Repelled by the negative charge inside.
55
Nernst Equation
calculates the equilibrium potential for a particular ion, balancing diffusion and electrostatic forces.
56
K⁺ typical equilibrium potential
-90 mV
57
Na⁺ typical equilibrium potential
+60 mV
58
driving force
(Vₘ - Eᵢₒₙ). The difference between the actual membrane potential (Vₘ) and the ion's equilibrium potential (Eᵢₒₙ)
59
What is happening inside and outside the cell with Na⁺, Cl⁻, K⁺, and A⁻
Outside the Neuron: High Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ("salt").
Inside the Neuron: High K⁺ and A⁻ ("banana").
Na⁺: Wants to move inside (both diffusion and electrostatic forces favor this).
K⁺: Wants to move out due to diffusion but is held back by electrostatic forces.
Cl⁻: Wants to enter due to diffusion but is repelled by the negative charge inside.
A⁻ (Proteins): Remain inside and cannot cross the membrane, contributing to the internal negative charge.
60
how do ions help maintain resting membrane potential?
K⁺: Major contributor to the resting potential through its leak channels.
Na⁺/K⁺ Pump: Maintains the gradient by actively transporting ions.
Cl⁻ and A⁻: Help maintain the negative charge inside the neuron.
61
membrane is most permeable to __ through leak channels, and less permeable to __ and __
K⁺
Na⁺ & Cl⁻
62
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation
determines the reversal potential across the membrane by taking into account all permeant ions (K⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻, etc.).
63
ligand-gated channels
open when a molecule (e.g., drug or neurotransmitter) binds to the channel. The molecule acts like a key to unlock the channel.
64
mechanically gated channels
open in response to physical pressure or deformation of the membrane (e.g., touch receptors).
65
voltage-gated channels
open when a specific membrane potential is reached (e.g., during an action potential).
- at -55 mV, voltage-gated sodium channels open, and Na⁺ flows in until it reaches its reversal potential (-60 mV)
- after this, the sodium channels become inactivated by a "plug" called the inactivation gate, which caps the channel after it has been open.
66
Alan Hodgkin & Andrew Huxley:
described the ionic mechanisms underlying the initiation and propagation of action potentials using the “giant axon” from squid (can be up to 1 mm in diameter and nearly a meter long).
67
what direction are action potentials?
afferent
68
what direction are motor neurons moving in?
efferent
69
glial cells
provide various support functions but also directly participate in information processing
70
neuron doctrine (Ramon y Cajal)
1. neurons and other cells of the brain are structurally, metabolically, and functionally independent
2. information is transmitted from neuron to neuron across tiny gaps (synapses)
(proven)
71
input zone
located: at dendrities
where neurons collect & process information
72
integration zone
located: cell body/axon hillock
where the decision to produce a neural signal is made
73
conduction zone
located: at axon
where information can be electrically transmitted over great distances
74
output zone
located: at axon terminals
where the neuron transfers information to other cells
75
axon collaterals
when an axon splits off into branches at its end
76
axon terminals/synaptic bouton
the end of an axon/collateral which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell
77
motor neuron
has long axons reaching out to synapses on muscles to transmit motor messages (also control organs)
78
sensory neurons (physical description)
have long axons to carry messages from peripheral tissue (ex. skin sensors) back to the spinal cord and brain
79
interneurons
have complex dendrites and short axons to receive inputs and send outputs to other neurons across short distances (the majority of neurons + they make up the brains intricate networks that perform complex functions)
80
arborization
elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons (reflects the complexity level of the neurons information processing functions)
81
multipolar neurons
many dendrites and one axon (most common)
82
bipolar neurons
have a single dendrite at the end of one cell and a single axon at the other end
83
unipolar neurons
have a single extension/axon that branches in 2 directions after leaving cell body (signals are integrated in the dendritic branches rather than cell body)
84
an interneuron is a
bipolar neuron
85
a sensory neuron is a
unipolar neuron
86
a motor neuron is a
multipolar neuron
87
axon hillock
cone-shaped area from which the axon originates out of the cell body (integration zone) where all of the arriving info is collected and integrated
88
oligodendrocytes (type of glial cell)
forms myelin in the central nervous system
89
Schwann cells (type of glial cell)
forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system
90
a progressive disorder where the immune system attacks oligodendrocytes, degrading myelin.
multiple sclerosis (CNS)
91
astrocyte (type of glial cell)
star shaped with numerous processes that extend in all directions
92
microglial (type of glial cell)
extremely small, remove cellular debris from dead or injured cells
93
somatic nervous system
provides voluntary neural connections to muscles and conducts sensory information to the CNS (made up of cranial and spinal nerves)
94
autonomic nervous system
brains main system for controlling organs
95
Guillain-Barré syndrome (PNS)
syndrome that damages Schwann cells, affecting myelination.
96
2 systems that make up the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system: uses norepinephrine and prepares the body for physical activity
parasympathetic nervous system: uses acetylcholine and helps the body relax + save energy
97
gray matter
portion of the brain that is dominated by cell bodies and devoid of myelin (receives/processes info)
98
white matter
layer underneath the cortex that consists of axons with white myelin sheaths (transmits info)
99
gyri
ridged or raised portions on the convoluted surface of the cortex
100
sulci
furrows of a convoluted brain surface that separate gyri
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corpus callosum
main band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres conveys info between them
102
forebrain
contains:
- Cerebral Cortex: Higher functions like reasoning, thought, and voluntary movement.
- Thalamus: Relays sensory info to the cortex.
- Limbic System:
(Hippocampus: Memory formation.
Amygdala: Regulates emotion, particularly fear and anger.
Hypothalamus: Controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep.)
103
midbrain
visual/auditory reflexes
contains the substantia nigra : produces dopamine, crucial for movement (Parkinson’s Disease).
104
hindbrain
contains
- Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, balance, and posture.
- Pons: Relays information between cerebellum and cerebrum, involved in sleep.
- Medulla: Regulates vital functions like heart rate and breathing.
105
frontal lobe
decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary motor function.
106
parietal lobe
processes sensory information like touch and temperature.
107
temporal lobe
hearing and memory.
108
occipital lobe
visual processing
109
somatosensory cortex
receives and processes touch and proprioception. (located in the parietal lobe)
110
ventricles
hollow spaces in the brain filled with with CSF
111
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
cushions the brain, removes waste, and provides nutrients.
112
meninges
3 protective membranes that envelope the brain and spinal cord:
- Dura Mater: Tough outer layer.
- Arachnoid Mater: Web-like middle layer containing Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF).
- Pia Mater: Thin inner layer adhering to the brain and spinal cord.
113
CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into ___
the third ventricle and continues down to the fourth ventricle
114
CT (Computerized Axial Tomography)
X-ray technology that creates cross-sectional images of the brain.
115
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of brain structures, with no damaging x-rays
116
TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)
Non-invasive technique that stimulates or inhibits brain regions using magnetic fields.
117
fMRI (Functional MRI)
MRI that measures brain activity by detecting blood flow changes and oxygen usage in the brain. (activity not structure) (revolutionary!)
118
PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
short-lived radioactive chemicals are injected into the bloodstream to visualize metabolic processes. (depicts activity not structure)
119
glutamate and its receptors
main excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning and memory.
receptors: AMPA, NMDA, Kainate, mGluR1
120
GABA and its receptors
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming brain activity.
receptors: GABAa and GABAb
121
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Controls muscle contraction and memory.
122
dopamine
Regulates reward, motivation, and movement.
123
serotonin
Influences mood, sleep, and appetite.
124
norepinephrine
Involved in stress response, attention, and arousal.
125
ionotropic receptors
Ligand-gated ion channels that cause rapid changes in membrane potential.
126
metabotropic receptors
G-protein-coupled receptors that have slower, longer-lasting effects.
127
Camillo Golgi's Reticular Theory
the brain is composed of a continuous network of fused nerve processes (disproven)
128
Otto Loewi
discovered chemical basis of neurotransmission (acetylcholine!)
129
tetanus and botulinum
neurotoxins that work by blocking exocytosis
130
exocytosis
The process of vesicles fusing with the presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitters
131
endocytosis
recycling of the vesicle from presynaptic membrane
132
depolarizations that do not lead to action potentials
graded potentials
133
saltatory conduction
Action potentials jump between Nodes of Ranvier on myelinated axons, speeding up transmission.
134
threshold potential for action potential
-55 mV
135
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)
a type of ionotropic receptor that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)
136
cephalization
Evolutionary trend toward developing a central brain.
137
afterpotential
a brief hyperpolarization that follows an action potential ("undershoot"). (occurs because potassium channels remain open longer than sodium channels, allowing more K⁺ ions to exit the neuron.)
138
At _______ synapses, the receptor molecule responds to recognition of a transmitter by opening an ion channel within its own structure.
ionotropic
139
temporal summation
occurs when multiple action potentials arrive at a synapse in rapid succession from the same presynaptic neuron and their effects combine
140
spatial summation
occurs when signals from multiple presynaptic neurons arrive at different locations on the same postsynaptic neuron simultaneously, making it more likely for the postsynaptic neuron to reach the action potential threshold.
141
When a transmitter binds to a metabotropic receptor that is coupled to a G protein, a subunit of the G protein __
either opens up a nearby ion channel or triggers other biochemical reactions in the postsynaptic cell.
142
how does myelin increase the speed of conduction?
resists the flow of current across the membrane
143
basal ganglia is made up of:
Caudate nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra, and globus pallidus, thalamus
144
agonist
any ligand that binds to the receptor to activate it; mimics the affect of the natural ‘ligand’ or neurotransmitter
145
antagonist
any ligand that binds to receptor to block its action
146
curare
an antagonist that blocks Ach from binding to the nAChR (can't contract muscles)
147
sarin
(poison) that blocks the breakdown of ACh by enzyme
148
social brain hypothesis
large brains facilitate social interactions, so larger group sizes select for larger brains
149
ecological hypothesis
suggests that humans have specialized cognitive skills for foraging due to their unique ecological niche as hunter-gatherers. It also suggests that an animal's cognitive skills are linked to its ability to navigate, forage, and survive in complex environments.
150
what causes repolarization?
the change in membrane potential opens the voltage-gated potassium channels (which move a lot slower) and potassium ions flow out of the cell, making it more negative
151
absolute refractory period
period of time when nerve cannot fire another action potential no matter how strongly it’s stimulated (this prevents action potentials from happening again too quickly and from traveling backward along the axon)
152
excitatory postsynaptic potential
depolarizing potential in the postsynaptic neuron that is caused by excitatory connections -- increases the probability of an action potential
153
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
hyperpolarizing potential in the postsynaptic neuron that is caused by inhibitory connections -- decreases the probability of an action potential
154
what do IPSPs usually result from?
the opening of chloride (-) channels
