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Neuro 101 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

(90 cards)

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1
Q

gastrulation and when it occurs

A

between days 13 and 19, cells move toward the midline and then forward along the midline – a process that forms a three-layered embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)

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2
Q

what layer of tissue in an embryo becomes the nervous system?

A

ectoderm

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3
Q

what layer of tissue in an embryo becomes the bones, muscles, and notochord?

A

mesoderm

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4
Q

what layer of tissue in an embryo becomes the internal organs

A

endoderm

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5
Q

what happens as the ectoderm thickens

A

it grows into a flat neural plate

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6
Q

uneven rates of cell division in the neural plate form the

A

neural groove

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7
Q

the tops of the neural groove join together to form the ___, which will become the ___

A

neural tube
central nervous system

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8
Q

when does primary neurulation occur?

A

3rd-4th week after conception (by day 26, the neural tube will be completely developed and closed)

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9
Q

what is the three-vesicle stage and when does it occur?

A

4th week after conception – when the neural tube is clearly divided into the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) (these are all present by day 24)

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10
Q

what is the five-vesicle stage and when does it occur?

A

5th week after conception – when the neural tube is clearly divided into the prosencephalon (telencephalon + diencephalon), mesencephalon, rhombencephalon (metencephalon + mylencephalon)

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11
Q

what part of the forebrain does the telencephalon become?

A

olfactory lobes, hippocampus, cerebrum

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12
Q

what part of the forebrain does the diencephalon become?

A

optic vesicle, epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus

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13
Q

what part of the hindbrain does the metencephalon become?

A

cerebellum, pons

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14
Q

what part of the hindbrain does the myelencephalon become?

A

medulla

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15
Q

how does the neural tube become the CNS?

A

the cranial end of the neural plate becomes the brain and the caudal end becomes the spinal cord

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16
Q

what does the interior of the neural tube become?

A

the fluid-filled cerebral ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the passages that connect them

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17
Q

what forms the peripheral nervous system?

A

neural crest cells

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18
Q

spina bifida

A

failure of posterior neural tube to close - happens by day 26, non-fatal

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19
Q

ontogeny

A

the development or development history of an individual organism
(gives the development history of an organism within its own lifetime)

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20
Q

phylogeny

A

the study of relationships among different groups of organisms and their evolutionary development
(gives the evolutionary history of a species)

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21
Q

neurogenesis

A

the mitotic division of nonneuronal cells to produce neurons (symmetric and asymmetric cell division)

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22
Q

symmetric cell division

A

stem cells create more stem cells, happens earlier in the process (pluripotential embryonic stem cells becoming neural stem cells (NSCs))

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23
Q

asymmetric cell division

A

mitosis creates one stem cell and one cell that will become a neuron or glia, happens as time progresses (NSCs become neuronal-restricted precursor cells (NPC) or glial-restricted precursor cells (GPC))

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24
Q

where does cell proliferation occur

A

the ventricular zone (where NPCs divide)

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25
cell migration
process through which cells move out of ventricular zone into their correct location
26
stem cells start in the ventricular zone and migrate to the
marginal zone
27
radial glial cells (RGCs)
type of NSC that forms vines from ventricular to marginal zone, which helps NPCS migrate up
28
how does cortical organization arise?
migration at different stages (different cell types reside in each layer of the cortex)
29
75% of neurons that form the cortex are
excitatory glutamatergic neurons
30
25% of neurons that form the cortex are
inhibitory gabaergic neurons
31
cell differentiation
the transformation of precursor cells into distinctive types of neurons and glial cells
32
cell-cell interactions
when cells communicate with their neighbors to coordinate differentiation and development
33
pluripotency
the ability of a cell or substance to differentiate into many different types of cells or tissues in the body
34
notch
a cell surface receptor. when a ligand binds, it activates a transcription factor → altering gene expression and eventual cell differentiation outcome
35
cell autonomous (differentiation)
“hard-wired” cell fate
36
induction (differentiation)
cell fate influenced from outside (can be direct: cell to cell communication (notch receptors) OR indirect: diffusible signal protein molecule (BMP and SHH))
37
what do Hox proteins do?
encode and specify the characteristics of ‘position’, ensuring that the correct structures form in the correct places of the body
38
induction factors
signaling molecules secreted by nearby cells (these control gene transcription and cell fate of NPC in the neural tube)
39
if you removed floor plate and notochord, what hormone would stop being produced?
Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), therefore you would lose motor neurons
40
notochord
a rodlike structure that forms the midline and releases Sonic Hedgehog protein, which diffuses to the spinal cord and induces some (but not all) neurons to become motor neurons
41
if you removed roof plate and surface ectoderm, what hormone would stop being produced?
Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP), therefore you would lose sensory neurons
42
regulation
an adaptive response to early injury, when developing individual cells compensate for missing or injured cells
43
synaptogenesis
the establishment of synaptic connections, as axons and dendrites grow (this is the biggest change in brain cells after birth)
44
what guides growth cones?
combination of diffusible gradients and CAMs
45
what is the role of actin in synaptogenesis?
actin polymerization sends filopedia out, then myosin binds to actin which disassembles and retracts filopodia
46
how does synapse formation happen?
growth cone secretes factors that induce changes in existing dendrites that initiate synapse formation -- interactions between the pre-synaptic terminal and post-synaptic terminal are bi-directional and activity dependent
47
chemorepellents
CAMs that repel growth cones
48
chemoattractants
CAMs that attract growth cones
49
cell death/apoptosis
the selective death of many nerve cells
50
neurotropic factors that help keep neurons alive (there is competition for these survival factors)
NGF (nerve growth factor) and BDNF (brain-derived neurotropic factor)
51
synapse rearrangement
synaptic connections are pruned and rearranged to achieve the most efficient wiring between pre- and post-synaptic neurons (happens for the rest of our lives)
52
myelination timeline
myelination gradually increases after birth and stabilizes around early 20s
53
how does apoptosis begin?
with a sudden influx and release of Ca 2+ ions that cause the mitochondria inside the cell to release a protein called Diablo
54
nerve growth factor (NGF)
neurotrophic factor that affects the growth of neurons in dorsal root ganglia and in the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system (results in the survival of more than average sympathetic neurons that are larger + more extensive)
55
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
very similar to NGF, can keep some classes of proteins alive
56
why does the prefrontal cortex mature last?
synaptic remodeling causes thinning of the gray matter in a caudal-rostral direction during maturation
57
how does synaptic pruning occur in individuals with autism?
the synaptic pruning process happens to a far lesser degree (their brains are larger and more dense)
58
methylation
chemical modification of DNA that does not affect the nucleotide sequence of a gene but makes that gene less likely to be expressed
59
mechanoreceptor
receptor cell for touch to the skin
60
nociceptors
receptor cell for pain
61
free nerve endings are how we feel
pain & temperature (in epidermis)
62
Merkel's discs are how we feel
fine touch and sustained pressure (located in dermis)
63
Meissner's corpuscle is how we feel
light touch and slow vibration (located in dermis)
64
Pacinian Corpuscle is how we feel
fast vibration and deep pressure (located in the hypodermis, meaning it would have to be a hard touch a.k.a. it's positioned to feel deep instead of light)
65
Ruffini’s ending is how we feel
deep skin stretch (located in the hypodermis, meaning it has a large receptive field)
66
adaptation
progressive loss of response as stimulus is maintained
67
fast-adapting/phasic receptors
Pacinian corpuscle and Meissner’s corpuscle
68
slow adapting/tonic receptors
Merkel’s discs and Ruffini’s ending
69
specialized neuron cells are
unipolar (all axon, no dendrites)
70
proprioception
where you are in space (mediated by mechanorecptors in muscles/tendons)
71
exteroception
the process of perceiving external stimuli through the senses, such as sight, sound, and touch, to interact with the world around us (touch, temp, pain)
72
netrin-1
chemorepellent
73
receptor potential on pacinian corpuscle
opens a sodium channel on the axon and Na+ flows in
74
Fourier analysis
deconstructs the amplitudes and frequencies of an auditory stimulus.
75
where does binaural processing (information about the location sounds in the horizontal plane) occur?
superior olivary nucleus in the medulla
76
hemispatial neglect (dorsal)
a deficit in attention and awareness towards the side of space opposite brain damage (could result from lesion in parietal lobe)
77
optic ataxia (dorsal)
failure to integrate visual input with motor output — can’t figure out where to grab
78
akinetopsia (dorsal)
meaning they see in snapshots but can’t actually see motion (could result from damage to V5)
79
object agnosia (ventral)
where you can see the object but you can’t name what it is
80
achromatopsia (ventral)
inability to see color (caused by damage to V4)
81
simultanagnosia (dorsal)
cannot perceive more than one object at a time
82
myopia
eyeball is too long, so the image reaching the retina is blurred (near sighted)
83
ambylopia
reduced visual acuity of one eye that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments
84
cranial nerves involved in gustation
- vagus nerve (X) - CN10 - glossopharyngeal (IX) - CN9 - facial nerve (VII) - CN7
85
cranial nerve 8
auditory nerve
86
cranial nerve 1
olfactory nerve
87
cranial nerve 2
optic nerve
88
tonotopy
the spatial arrangement of where sounds of different frequency are processed in the brain
89
dorsal column sends signals to the
brain
90
ventral column sends signals to the
periphery

Neuro 101 (4 decks)

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