Exam 1 Flashcards
pass (108 cards)
1
Q
The scientific study of the ways in which people’s thoughts,
feelings and behaviors are influenced by the real or perceived presence of others.
(It includes how we perceive other people and situations; how we respond to other
people and they respond to us; how we are affected by social situations.)
A
Social Psychology
2
Q
People tend to befriend or find life partners with people
who are more similar to them
A
Matching Principle:
3
Q
Occurs within a person.
A
Intrapersonal Phenomena:
4
Q
Interactions between two people.
A
Interpersonal Phenomena:
5
Q
How we act in groups, and how it affects our
attitudes/behaviors
A
Group Phenomena:
6
Q
A factor that is able to take on at least 2 different values
A
Variable:
7
Q
The variable that affects the dependent variable (the
variable that is manipulated); The input
A
independent variable:
8
Q
The variable affected by the independent variable; The
outcome
A
● Dependent variable:
9
Q
When a testable hypothesis can be formed
A
Confirmatory Research:
10
Q
No hypothesis; venturing into a topic
A
● Exploratory Research:
11
Q
Observed associations between variables without manipulation; correlations do not imply causation
A
● Correlational Study:
12
Q
Relationships going in the same direction. Perfect positive
correlation = +1.00. X increases and Y increases; X decreases and Y decreases
A
● Positive correlation:
13
Q
Relationships going in opposite directions. Perfect
negative correlation = -1.00. X increases and Y decreases; X decreases and Y
increases
A
Negative Correlation:
14
Q
No relationship.
A
● 0 Correlation-
15
Q
When thought that X causes Y, it might be the case that Y
causes X
A
Reverse causality:
16
Q
other factors that may explain why X is correlated with Y
A
● 3rd Variable:
17
Q
When participants have an equal chance of being assigned
to the different conditions of an experiment
A
Random assignment:
18
Q
Requires both manipulation of a variable and random assignment to
conditions
A
Experiment:
19
Q
conducted in people’s natural environment. High mundane realism
(realistic), high external validity (external validity = generalizability)
A
Field studies:
20
Q
Participant comes to researcher; usually an artificial environment.
Allows for more controlled conditions, high experimental realism (engages &
absorbs participants), high internal validity (confidence that independent variable
caused dependent variable)
A
Lab studies:
21
Q
confidence that the IV caused the DV within an experiment
A
Internal validity:
22
Q
generalizability of experiment to other situations, people, etc.
A
● External validity:
23
Q
extent to which a study is engaging to the participants; higher in internal validity
A
Experimental realism:
24
Q
similarity to actions/events in the real world; higher in
external validity
A
Mundane realism:
25
wanting to look good in front of an experimenter so either lying or saying what they think the experimenter wants to hear; also may want to feel like a good person so may not admit to having done bad things.
Social desirability:
26
data that researchers see directly; pros: high authenticity;
cons: potentially more time-consuming, may be hard to interpret
Observational data:
27
collected through surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone
screenings; pros: can measure internal states (e.g. loneliness); cons: potentially biased responses, social desirability is a concern
● Self-report data:
28
Previously collected research; cons: one is unable to control
what is asked, who the participants were, the origin of data
Archival research:
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since the experimenter knows what results they want to see
they might give unintentional cues or hints to participants (blinding counters this)
Experimenter bias:
30
what type of biases... you can never study every member of the larger
group that we are interested in understanding. Most of the time we want to have a
representative sample of people but we can’t randomly select from all of the people. (would have to be from all over the world, every country, every background... impossible!!!
Subject (or Participant) Bias:
31
participants respond in a way that corresponds to what they
believe the researcher is hoping to observe
Participant bias:
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Cues/features of a study that inadvertently tip off the
participant
○ Proposed Solution: keep participants and experimenters blind to study purpose and hypotheses, conducting studies where participants are
unaware they are being observed
Demand Characteristics:
33
rely on whatever people are convenient to participate in
studies (often college students). Can also be people from the community (but usually not representative, usually white, financially comfortable etc.)
Convenience Sample:
34
The ways people make inferences/judgements from the social information in the environment. Research in _____ investigates how people use complex information to form judgments.
Social Cognition:
35
How we gather and integrate information into an inference or
judgment.
Social Inference:
36
Information about a large number of individuals. (Numeric, quantitative)
● Statistical Information:
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Information about a few specific individuals. Case history information is more influential in our judgements, even though statistics
are objectively more correct (paradox).
● Case History Information:
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Ideas people hold about associations between different things or different people; what goes with what
Judgments of Covariation/Covariance:
39
A phenomenon where we impose a relationship between 2
things where no relationship exists. Often occurs when 2 variables are seen as “belonging together” or when 2 variables share similar features.
Illusory Correlation:
40
People who are frugal with their cognitive resources; we try to
process massive amounts of information as efficiently as possible.
Cognitive Miser:
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Schemas range from being broad,
general sets of thoughts to being more specific, down to our own experiences.
- For example, a general New Year’s
Eve party schema and the New
Year’s Eve party you attended last
year schema.
Hierarchical Organization (of Schemas):
42
Determine which schemas are going to be used depending on
what the situation looks like.
Natural Contours:
43
Refers to how pronounced or noticeable a feature is in the environment. More ____ stimuli or information is influential on what schemas are used.
● Salience:
44
Schemas that we recently used are more likely to get used again; can
affect inferences we make about a person.
Priming:
45
We behave towards other people in a way that tends to confirm our beliefs/schemas about them. We can selectively elicit information that supports our schemas about them
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing:
46
the historical idea that the U.S. should not let communism take
over in countries, or else they will “fall like dominos.” An example of how schemas caused false grave errors in history
Domino Theory:
47
Expectations or schemas about others can lead us to treat them in ways that causes them to adopt those behaviors.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:
48
Explanations for behavior. We make ____ especially when
something unexpected or negative happens. Can affect our feelings, attitudes, and
emotions.
Attributions:
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Extent to which we believe something happened because of an internal factor or an external factor.
Locus:
50
characteristics of an individual (moods, attitudes,
personalities, etc.)
Internal/dispositional factors:
51
factors that are external to a person that might influence their behavior (social pressure, money, etc)
External/situational factors:
52
if the cause is present, then we can expect to observe the effect; if the cause is not present, then we can expect not to observe the effect
Principle of Covariation:
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If many potential causes are plausible, then we are less
likely to attribute an effect to any particular cause.
Discounting Principle:
54
Does a person act this way only in response to this situation and
not to other situations? How salient the situation is compared to other situations
● Distinctiveness:
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Do other people act in the same way in response to this stimulus?
● Consensus:
56
Does the person act this way in response to this situation at other
times?
● Consistency:
57
anything that captures our attention and is more salient to us tends to be
more influential or noticeable
● Salience:
58
The tendency to over-attribute other people’s behavior to dispositional (internal) factors and under-attribute their behavior to situational (external) factors
● Fundamental Attribution Error:
59
each party has different perspectives on and information about an event. The Actor will likely attribute their own actions to situational (external) factors, the Observer will attribute the Actor’s actions to dispositional
(internal) factors.
● Actor-Observer Bias:
60
The tendency to exaggerate the extent to which others agree with our behaviors and attitudes and others will think/react the same
way as us, Makes us feel better that we are not the only ones with these ideas.
● False Consensus Effect/Bias:
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Tendency to attribute our own success to internal factors and
our failures to external factors.
● Self-Serving Bias:
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Creating an obstacle to success so that when we fail we can
attribute the failure to the obstacle rather than to our own ability or disposition.
● Self-Handicapping:
63
The tendency to exaggerate our own contributions to shared
activities.
● Egocentric Bias:
64
Believing we have more control than we actually do and
underestimating the role of chance
● Illusion of control:
65
blaming negative situations on our own character and traits. Not adaptive, since our character cannot be changed.
● Characterological self-blame:
66
caused by a virus that can be transmitted through blood and bodily fluids
AIDS:
67
belief that we have control over our circumstances and that good things happen to good people, and bad people deserve what is coming
to them.
● Belief in a just world:
68
how much control is perceived to exist
● Controllability:
69
the belief that a person is responsible for the cause of their
condition. Are they doing anything to prevent this condition? For example, are people using condoms to prevent AIDS?
● Onset Responsibility:
70
the belief that a person has the responsibility to work
towards a solution for their condition. Are they seeking help for their condition? Are they taking action or coping
● Offset Responsibility:
71
Attitudes measured now do not necessarily predict
behaviors later, as attitudes change over time due to situations or people changing.
Stability of Attitudes:
72
When someone's attitude is weak/ambivalent, then we
find more inconsistency between their attitudes and behaviors.
● Strength of Attitudes:
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Behavior is most consistent with attitudes that are specifically relevant to them.
● Relevance of Attitudes:
74
When an attitude is made salient, we’re more likely to act in a
way that’s consistent with the attitude.
● Salience of Attitudes:
75
When ____ are very strong, attitudes are
not as likely to determine people’s behaviors, the situation is
● Situational Pressures:
76
When there is inconsistency between behavior
and attitude, and behavior cannot be changed or revoked, we experience
tension/discomfort and reduce dissonance by changing attitude. HOT theory.
● Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
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The tension that we experience due to our commitment to a particular course of action over another. To reduce dissonance,
we either decrease our evaluation of the alternative we didn’t choose or increase our evaluation of the alternative we did choose. If both choices are equally good,
there is more dissonance.
● Post-Decisional Dissonance:
78
Based on strength of attitude, stability of attitude, relevance of attitude to behavior, salience of the attitude, and situational pressures
Consistency of Attitudes and Behavior:
79
When you perform some action inconsistent with your attitude.
● Attitude-Discrepant Behavior:
80
An outside motivation for performing a task, which can
be force, coercion, or a reward. A lack of _____ justification may lead to a search for intrinsic justification.
● Extrinsic Justification:
81
An internal motivation for performing a task.
● Intrinsic Justification
82
Behavior leads to attitude. _____ occurs often when attitudes are vague or ambiguous and dissonance is absent (no tension involved). Suggests that attitudes are at the top of the head, not deeply felt. COLD theory.
● Self Perception Theory:
83
Describes the type of theory that cognitive dissonance is, which
suggests that people experience tension internally. It seems illogical.
● Hot Theory:
84
Describes the type of theory that self perception theory is, which
suggests our attitudes come from reviewing our behavior. It is very rational.
● Cold Theory:
85
Individuals determine their attitudes by reviewing their behaviors, which is whatever is at the “top of the head”. A feature of self- perception theory
● Top-of-the-Head Phenomena:
86
Influence that people have on the beliefs and behavior of others
Social Influence:
87
Type of social influence where we do something simply because
other people are doing similar things. A voluntary action (e.g. Sherif study, Asch Study)
● Conformity:
88
Doing what we are asked to do. Response to a request in hopes of a
reward, for fear of punishment, or due to social norms; a form of social influence
● Compliance:
89
Form of compliance where we perceive a person or
group to have the legitimate authority/right to influence us (e.g. listening to a police officer).
● Obedience to authority:
90
Optical illusion where a stationary light in a dark room
makes the light appear to move. Personal perceptions vary greatly; used in the Sherif Study
Autokinetic Effect:
91
Conforming for the desire to be right, especially if we
believe a group has more information than us.
● Informational Influence:
92
Actors who are part of the study but are perceived by participants
to be just another participant.
● Confederate:
93
Conforming to gain the approval of a group or to avoid a group’s disapproval.
● Normative Influence:
94
A group that is highly committed with high morale; is prone to
pressures of conformity
● Cohesive Group:
95
Even one dissenter makes conformity in a group setting
decrease (regardless of group size and validity of dissent); suggests that the majority is wrong.
Group Unanimity:
96
a person who disagrees with a group’s unanimous thought.
Dissenter
97
A dissenting minority is especially influential when they are
similar to the majority except the one behavior or attitude that they are trying to change. Shows that the minority has no self-interest in the dissenting opinion.
● Minority Influence:
98
the concept of people complying with little serious thought about
their behavior or no apparent reason (e.g. complying to a person who cuts in front
of you in line).
● Mindlessness:
99
rewards, coercion, expertise, information, referent power,
legitimate authority
Bases of social power:
100
A basis of social power that involves our desire to be similar to
the people we like or admire.
Referent Power:
101
Social responsibility to help those who are disadvantaged or in need and could clearly use our help
“Power of the Powerless”:
102
A compliance technique where causing a person to agree to a
small request makes them more likely to agree to a larger request.
● Foot-in-the-door:
103
A compliance technique where asking a large request of a
person makes the person more likely to comply with a second smaller request.
● Door-in-the-face:
104
A compliance technique that involves withholding information in
order to get someone to agree to an initial request and then letting them know the whole story later. Usually illegal when selling products/services.
● Low-balling:
105
A compliance technique that involves “sweetening” the deal with
extras, which were probably going to be included in the deal anyway (“Not only will you get the microwave, but you’ll get the dishes too!”)
● That’s-not-all:
106
Too much pressure to comply may cause one to do the opposite of
what is desired in order to maintain personal freedom.
● Reactance:
107
Frequent rewards provide extrinsic motivation for a behavior,
and over time we lose intrinsic motivation to continue the behavior, only doing it for the sake of the reward.
● Overjustification:
108
a committee that reviews research studies involving human participants to ensure they meet ethical, safety, and other standards. Often called an Ethics Board in European countries.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
