Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Nucleolus function
A
ribosome synthesis
2
Q
G1 phase
A
first growth phase
3
Q
s phase
A
DNA duplicated
4
Q
G0 phase
A
cell resting period
5
Q
CDK2-Cyclin E
A
G1/S checkpoint.
checks nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage and response to decide to divide
6
Q
CDK1-Cyclin B
A
G2/M checkpoint.
checks cell size and DNA replication to commit to mitosis
7
Q
Cyclin B 3
A
Late metaphase (spindle) checkpoint
8
Q
Unregulated cell division
A
cancer
9
Q
Mitotic inhibitors
A
Freeze cells in mitosis by inhibiting microtubule dynamics
10
Q
Antimetabolites
A
Prevent cells from replicating DNA by inhibiting synthesis of thymidine
11
Q
DNA damaging agents
A
damage DNA to overwhelm cancer cell because cancer cell might not have G2/M checkpoint that monitors for damage
12
Q
Three types of chemotherapeutics
A
- mitotic inhibitors
- antimetabolites
- DNA damaging agents
13
Q
Ion-channel linked receptor
A
Neurotransmitter binds to receptor and changes protein structure during signal transduction in a neuron
14
Q
Enzyme linked receptors
A
cell surface receptors with intracellular domains
15
Q
Juxtracrine
A
Signal producing cell makes direct contact with target cell
16
Q
Endocrine
A
Signal-producing cells (endocrine cells) release signaling molecules (hormones) that act on distant target cells
17
Q
Paracrine
A
Signal producing cells release signaling molecules that act on proximal cells (throwing skittles)
17
Q
autocrine
A
signal producing cell is also the target cell
18
Q
Myasthenia Gravis
A
Ion channel disfunction.
Autoimmune disease which the body makes antibodies against nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.
Prevents signaling at neuromuscular junctions resulting in muscle weakness
18
Q
What method do half of all known medications use
A
GPCR
18
Q
What is the basement membrane made of
A
basal lamina (made of lamina densa and lamina lucida with collagen fiber makeup), reticular lamina (reticular fiber makeup)
19
Q
What type of diffusion happens in gas exchange
A
simple (passive)
20
Q
Does facilitated diffusion require ATP
A
no
21
Q
Carrier proteins
A
Bind molecules to be transported then change shape to release in facilitated diffusion
22
Forms of channel proteins
ligand gated, voltage gated, or always open
23
Why does sodium potassium pump pump out NA and in K
To maintain osmotic balance and cell volume
24
What causes cell differentiation
All cells have same DNA, It's based on what parts of the DNA is read in each cell causing different genes to be expressed via proteins
25
Totipotent cells
Stem cell that gives rise to ANY cell type
26
Pluripotent cells
Stem cell that can five rise to all cells (endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm lineages) except the placental cells.
27
Multipotent
Stem cell that can only develop into a limited number of cells in that lineage
28
Hypertrophy
cells increase size, not number.
Pathologic enlargement of heart from hypertension.
Physiologic hormone induced in uterus during pregnancy
29
Hyperplasia
Cells increase in number.
Physiologic from hormones or increase in tissue masss after partial resection,
Pathologic from excess amount of growth factors or viral incfections
30
Atrophy
Reduced size of organ or tissue from decrease of cell size and number
31
Causes of atrophy
-Loss of endocrine stimulation (happens in menopause)
-Decreased workload of muscle
-Diminished blood supply
-Tumor exerting pressure
32
Extrinsic Apoptosis pathway
uses TNF receptor
33
Intrinsic Apoptosis pathway
Growth factor withdrawal, DNA damage, or protein misfolding sensed by Bcl-2 and mitochondria releases proapoptotic proteins
34
MitoA and Bendavia
Drugs used to reduce toxic reactive oxygen species in mitochondria
35
Cyclosporin A
Drug that inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition pore.
Used during immunosuppression, psoriasis, dry eyes, dermatitis, uticaria.
-
36
List the three important types of bonds strongest to weakest
Covalent > Ionic > Hydrogen
37
List of monosaccharides
Ribose
Fructose
Glucose
Galactalose
38
List of Disaccharides
Lactose
Trehalose
39
Maltose
Disaccharide found in grain
40
Lactose
Disaccharide found in cow's milk
41
Trehalose
disaccharide found in sunflower seeds, shrimp, and mushrooms
42
Maltose
Disaccharide found in grain
43
Sucrose
Disaccharide that is table sugar
44
Glycogen
Storage form of glucose.
Helps maintain blood-glucose levels
45
Starch
-Primary carb in diet
-Cellulose
-Branched is amylopectin
-Unbranched is amylose
46
Where is glycogen stored
liver and muscle
47
Liver importance with glycogen
Liver does the synthesis and degradation of glycogen
48
What lipids are used in signaling
Eicosanoids and hormones
49
What are the two essential fatty acids
1. linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid)
2. alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3 fatty acid)
50
Eicosanoid
2 carbon fatty acid used in signaling and gene regulation
51
Examples of eicosanoids
-Prostaglandins
-Prostacyclins
-Thromboxanes
-Leukotrienes
52
Prostaglandin
Eicosanoid used in inflammation
53
Prostacyclin
Eicosanoid that breaks up platelets
54
Thromboxane
Eicosanoid that causes platelet aggregation
55
Leukotrienes
eicosanoid that causes inflammation but causes pulmonary inflammation and anaphylaxes
56
What is the building block for steroid hormones
cholesterol
57
Bile salts
-Produced in liver from cholesterol
-Solubilize dietary fat in small intestines
58
What hormones are produced from cholesterol
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, progesterone, estrogen
59
Vitamin D
-Acts as a hormone in the body
-cholesterol is converted to vitamin D with help of sunlight, liver, skin , and kidney
60
Calcitiol
Active form of vitamin D
61
Essential Amino Acids
Phenylalanine
Valine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Isoleucine
Methionine
Histidine
Lysine
Leucine
62
Transferin
Glycoprotein that transports iron
63
Protein function in homeostasis
Albuin helps with osmotic pressure.
Other proteins help with pH balance
64
How do proteins help with transport
Oxygen binds to hemoglobin
65
How are proteins used in signaling
As hormones and neurotransmitters
66
-ase
enzyme
67
enzymes that don't end in "-ase"
trypsin, pepsin, thrombin
68
Competitive inhibition
inhibitor binds on enzyme's active site so substrate can't bind
69
Noncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds so site other than active site on enzyme causing active site to change shape and be unable to bind to substrate.
70
Allosteric regulation
Noncompetitive inhibition
71
What cells are actin and myosin found in
all of them
72
What does actin do
cell motility, wound healing, cytokinesis, skeletal muscle contractions, smooth muscle intercellular signaling,
73
Tubulin
Makes up microtubules, structural parts of flagella and cilia, non motile cilia (rods in eyes), mspindle fibers
74
Glycosaminoglycan
repeating disaccharide chains of modified glucose and/or galactalose
75
Glycosaminoglycans examples
Heparin, Chondroitin, Hyaluronic acid (longest)
76
Hyaluronic acid
Glycosaminoglycan. Extracellular matrix of joints, binds to collagen in cornea, and is a component of proteoglycan binding to collagen
77
Chondroiton
Glycosaminoglycan. Structural component and attachment point to collagen in joints and bones
78
Heparin
Glycosaminoglycan. Regulates immune response and blood clot formation from mast cells and liver cells.
79
What does purine cataboism cause
Uric acid --> Kidney Stones
80
What are the pyrimidines
Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil
81
What are the purines
Adenosine, Guanine
82
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous base + sugar. NO PHOSPHATE
83
Nucleotide
Sugar + nitrogenous base + phosphate group
84
What links nucleotides
Phosphodiester bonds making a phosphate backbone
85
Azidothymidine
Nucleoside analog of thymidine that is used in treating retroviral infections
86
Acyclovir
Nucleoside analog of guanosine.
Treats retroviral infection
87
mRNA
carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes for translation
88
tRNA
Carries amino acids to location of protein synthesis
89
rRNA
combines AA to form proteins
90
P arm
Short arms of chromosome
91
Q arm
Long arms of chromosome
92
Telomer
End of arms of chromosome
93
Centromere
Middle of chromosome
94
Mitochondrial DNA
In a circle. From mom.
95
Introns
noncoding (only in eukaryotes)
96
Exons
Coding (in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
97
Histones
Proteins that function in the packaging of DNA.
Results in higher level of gene expression
98
Chromatin
Form of DNA packing
99
Heterochromatine
Highly condensed (packed)
10% of an interphase
100
Euchromatin
Less condensed, more extended state.
90% of interphase
101
X-chromosome inactivation
In females, one copy of X is packaged into heterochromatin and shut down. Which one is selected early in embryogenesis
102
What type of RNA is translated
mRNA
103
Gene
Segment of DNA that functions as a unit to generate RNA product
104
What direction is RNA sytnthesized
5'-3'
105
TFIID
Transcription factor
TBP (Tata-Binding-Protein)
Co activator to help get RNA polymerase onto the DNA for transcription
Binds to TATA box
106
RNA polymerase
enzyme that uses DNA as template to synthesize RNA molecule
107
Three main domains of mRNA
-Leader sequence
-Coding region
-Trailer sequence
108
Leader sequence
mRNA domain that starts with Guanosine cap at 5' end
109
Coding region
mRNA domain from start codon to stop codon (termination signal)
110
Trailer sequence
mRNA domain that terminates at the 3' end with a poly(A) tail.
111
RNA splicing
cutting out introns
112
Cap on 5' end of RNA
-Guanosine
-Decreases rate of degradation
-Recognition site for binding of ribosome
113
Where does transcription occur
Nucleus
114
Where does translation occur
Cytoplasm
115
Where is rRNA produced
Nucleolus
116
What structure brings mRNA and tRNA together
ribosome
117
aminoacyl-tRNA
a three nucleotide codon (tRNA) attached to an amino acid made in aminoacyl-tRNA
118
A-site
aminoacyl site.
Binds appropriate aminoacyl-tRNA determined by codon=anticodon base pairing.
Where release factor binds to sto codon
119
P-site
Peptidyl site.
Binds to peptidyl tRNA
120
E-site
Ejection site,
Binds the tRNA without amino acid before it leaves the ribosomes.
121
Depurination
Spontaneous mutation.
Does not break phosphodiester backbone.
Results in loss of nitrogen base
122
Deamination
Spontaneous mutation,
Does not brak phosphodiester backbone.
Converts C-->U
123
X-rays effect on genome
Makes hydroxyl radicals that clave DNA strands
124
Huntington's disease
Caused by trinucleotide expansion. Longer expansion means younger age of onset. Expansion of CAG sequence.
Resulting in
125
UV light effect on genome
Cause formation of pyrimidine dimers
126
Translocation
Chromosome breaks and reattaches segment to another chromosome
127
Xeroderma pigmentosum
Defect in nucleotide excision repair.
Unable to fix UV damage to genes.
High risk of skin cancer
128
Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer
Lynch Syndrome.
Due to mutation of MSH2 or MLH1
129
Nonhomologus end joining
Most common mechanism for fixing double strand breaks.
Could introduce mutations.
Commonly used by cells in G1 phase.
130
When does Crossing over occur
After replication (G2-M)
131
Achondroplasia
Dwarfism.
Autosomal dominant mutation in fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR3)
132
Cystic Fibrosis
One of the most common autosomal recessive disorders.
Deletion in gene that encodes for chloride channel (CFTR) resulting in buildup of mucus in lungs, pancreatic insufficiency, and infertility
133
Hemophilia A
X-linked recessive mutation in blood clotting factor VIII
134
VItamin D-resistant rickets
X-lined dominant. Mutations in PHEX gene effecting phosphate balance.
135
Fragile X Syndrome
Trinucleotide expansion of CGG in FMR1 gene.
Intellectual disability
136
Ataxia Telangiectasia
Mutated ATM impairs DNA damage response.
Susceptible to double stranded breaks
137
DNA methylation
Turning off a gene
138
What cell cycle checkpoint is most critical
G1/S (CDK4/6-CyclinD, CDK2-Cyclin, p53)
139
Tumor suppressor
The "brakes" of the cell cycle. (ex. p53, Rb)
140
protooncogene
Noncancerous cells that drive the cell cycle forward. (ex. Cyclins)
141
Anti-apoptosis protein examples
Bcl-2
Bcl-XL
Mcl-1
142
Pro-apoptotic proteins examples
NOXA, PUMA, BAX, BIM, BID
143
Number one contributor to cell immortality
Cancer cells activate telomerase to keep telomeres long
144
VEGF
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor secreted from tumors to promote blood vessel formation
145
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
Cancer cells acquire abiliity to migrate by MMPs facilitating invasion through extracellular matrix. and disabling e E-Cadherin
146
E-cadherin
Protein that holds cells together so stuff can't get through extracellular matrix
147
Where do solid tumors originate
Carcinomas originate from endothelium (endoderm or ectoderm)
Sarcomas originate from mesenchymal cells (mesoderm
148
Where do liquid cancers originate
Bone marrow
149
Examples of liquid cancer
Leukemias
Multiple Myelomas
Lymphomas
150
DNA methylation
Silences tumor suppressor genes
151
What do non-coding RNAs do
Regulate oncogenes and tumor suppressors
152
Tumor suppressor mutation
Autosomal Recessive
Loss of functoin
153
oncogenes
Mutated forms of proto-oncogenes
Autosomal dominant
Gain of function
154
TP53
Tumor suppressor gene
Mutation in this gene causes 50% of all cancer by disabling p53
155
Caretaker gene
Involved in genomic repair and genome stability/integrity
156
Caretaker gene mutation
Causes loss of function
Causes aneuploidy
157
Caretaker gene example
BRCA-1
158
General sequence of tumorigenesis
1. Oncogene activation
2. Mutation accumulation
3. Tumor suppressor gene inactivation
4. complete loss of growth control
159
PDL-1
Expressed on cancer cells to make it invisible to immune system
160
Cancer Associated Fibroblasts
Promote tumor growth through secretion of growth factors and remodeling of extracellular matrix
161
Warbug Effect
Tumor prefer glycolysis over oxidative phosphorylation even if oxygen present allowing for rapid ATP production and intermediates for biosynthetic pathways
162
BRCA 1/2 mutations
Increased risk of breast and ovarian cancers
163
Kinases
Enzyme that phosphorylate proteins
164
Phosphatase
Enzyme that takes off phosphate
165
RAS pathway
-GF binds to RTK receptor activating RAS (G protein)
-RAS phosphorylates/activates RAF
-RAF phosphorylates/activates MEK
-MEK phosphorylates/activates ERK
-ERK regulates transcription factor in the nucleus
166
What happens when there is a mutation in RAS
Cell is constantly told to divide even if no GF present.
167
What happens when there is a BRAF mutation
MEK-ERK always activated. Most common in thyroid cancer
168
PI3K pathway
-Growth factor binds to RTK receptor activating PI3K
-PI3K converts PIP-2 to PIP-3.
-PIP3 activates AKT
-AKT activates mTOR
-mTOR promotes proliferation
169
WNT/B-Catenin pathway
-WNT bind to GPCR inhibiting B-catenin destruction complex (APC) allowing B-catenin to accumulate in cytoplasm and translocate to nucleus
-B-catenin activates transcription factors in nucleus promoting proliferation
170
Retinoblastoma
-Childhood eye cancer in retinal tissue.
-Caused by gene mutation that causes person to not have Rb protein (tumor suppressor)
171
How does colon cancer happen
APC mutation in WNT/B-catenin pathway.
Epithelial cells can't shed, so cells bunch up forming polyps (hyperplasia.
This causes continued mutations
172
What is the guardian of the genome
P53
173
P21
Tumor suppressor at G1/S checkpoint and G2/M checkpoint.
Transcribed by p53.
Binds and inhibits CDK Cyclin halting the cell cycle to give time to repair DNA
174
PTEN
Inhibits PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
Loss of PTEN leads to unregulated cell growth.
175
Apoptosis pathway
-pro-apoptotic proteins more present than anti
-Cytochrome C released from mitochondria
-Caspase 9 activated
-Apoptosis
176
Metastasis steps
-Invasion
-Detatchment
-Intravasation
-Circlation
-Extravasation
-Colonization
