Exam 3 (Neuro and EENT) Flashcards
(254 cards)
1
Q
Efferent
A
Motor.
Send signals from CNS to effector organs
2
Q
Afferent
A
Sensory.
Sends signals to CNS
3
Q
Visceral stimuli
A
Internal organs and mucosal surfaces
4
Q
Sensory stimuli
A
External sources.
Like touching a hot stove
5
Q
Somatic nervous system
A
Conscious, voluntary, controlled function.
Direct connection from CNS to skeletal muscle (no ganglia).
Myelinated
6
Q
Autonomic nervous system
A
Automatic.
Unconscious, involuntary, regulatory functions.
Broken up into sympathetic and parasympathetic
Cholinergic and adrenergic neurons innervate various target organs.
7
Q
Preganglionc neurons
A
Cell body originates in CNS from brainstem or spinal cord.
Form synaptic connection in ganglia.
Myelinated
8
Q
Postganglionic neurons
A
Cell body begins in ganglia.
Ends on effector organ.
Nonmyelinated.
9
Q
Ganglia
A
Synaptic relay station between neurons.
10
Q
Sympathetic nervous system
A
Fight or flight.
Release energy.
11
Q
Sympathetic nervous system neuron lengths
A
Short preganglionic and long postganglionic.
12
Q
Is sympathetic or parasympathetic considered a complete system
A
Sympathetic
13
Q
Sympathetic nervous system effects
A
Pupil dilation through contraction of iris radial.
Bronchiole dilation.
Secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Relaxation of detrusor, contraction of trigone and sphincter in bladder.
Blood vessels of skeletal muscle dilate.
Increased HR.
Thick secretion from salivary glands.
Decreased GI motility
14
Q
Parasympathetic nervous system
A
Rest and digest.
Conserves energy.
15
Q
Parasympathetic neuron lengths
A
Long preganglionic and short post ganglionic.
16
Q
Where do parasympathetic neurons originate
A
Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X, and sacral region of spinal chord.
17
Q
Where do sympathetic neurons originate
A
Thoracic and lumbar regions (T1-L2)
18
Q
Parasympathetic effects
A
Pupil contracts from contraction of iris sphincter.
Bronchioles constrict.
Detrusor contracts, trigone and sphincter relax of bladder.
Increased GI motility.
Decreased HR.
Watery secretion from salivary glands.
Production of tears
19
Q
Glutamate
A
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
20
Q
GABA
A
Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Uses Cl ligand gated channels to devrease cAMP and increase K channels
21
Q
Glutamate and GABA relationship
A
Most and least excitatory neurotransmitters.
Balance each other
22
Q
Epinephrine and norepinephrine receptors
A
alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
23
Q
Dopamine receptors
A
D receptors
24
Q
Serotonin receptor
A
5-HT receptors
25
GABA receptor
NMDA, AMPA
26
Acetylecholine receptors
Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors
27
Glutamate receptor
NMDA, AMPA,mGLuR
28
Endorphin receptors
Opioid receptors
29
What are good drug targets
enzymes
30
Cholinergic nerve fibers in preganglionic autonomic neurons
Release ACh taht binds to nicotinic receptors
31
Cholinergic nerve fibers in somatic motor neurons
Release ACh whcih binds to nicotinic receptors on skeletal muscle cell.
32
Cholinergic fibers in parasympathetic postgalnglionic neurons
Release ACh that binds to muscarinic R
33
Adrenergic Nerve fibers
Release NE from sympathetic postganglionic neurons to adrenergic receptors on effector organ cells.
34
What releases epinephrine (a catecholamine) into blood
Adrenal medulla
35
Types of cholinergic receptors
Nicotinic and muscarinic
36
Nicotinic receptor
Ligand gated.
Ion channel
Faster than muscarinic
Ionotropic
37
Muscarinic receptors
G protein-coupled receptor.
Uses second messsenger system.
Slower than cholinergic
Matabotropic
38
Adrenergic receptor
On effector organs of sympathetic system.
G-protein coupled receptors
Uses secondary messenger system
Metabotropic.
39
Botulinum toxin
Block release of ACh.
40
Actions of acetylcholine
SLUDGE
Salivation
Lacrimation
Urination
Deification/diaphoresis
GI
Emesis
41
Acetylcholineesterase (AChE)
Breaks down ACh
42
What does nicotinic receptors bind to
Nicotine, ACh.
Weakly to muscarine
43
Three functionally characterized muscarinic receptors
M1 - on gastric parietal cells
M2 - cardiac cells and smooth muscle
M3 - on bladder , exocrine glands, and smppthe muscles
44
What does muscarinic receptors bind to
muscarine and ACh
Weak affinity for nicotine
45
Direct acting cholinergic agonists
ACh itself.
Little specificity
Quickly broken down
Not much clinical use
46
Indiract acting cholinergic agonists
AChE inhibitors.
Prevent ACh breakdown thus increasing ACh concentration
47
Antimuscarinics
Cholinergic antagonist that is selective for muscarinic receptors. (ex. Atropine)
48
Ganglionic blockers
Cholinergic antagonist that prefers nicotinic receptors, limited clinical use
49
Neuromuscular blocking agents
Cholinergic antagonist, mostly nicotinic antagonists that interrupt efferent impulses to skeletal muscles.
Used in surgery
50
Synthesis of epinephrine
Tyrosine --> DOPA --> Dopamine --> Norepinephrine --> Epinephrine
51
What is the rate limiting step of the creation of epinephrine
Hydoxylation of tyrosine by tyrosine hydroxylase
52
Reserpine
Stops the carrier system that transports dopamine into the synaptic vesicles to be treansformed into NE
53
COMT, MAO-
matabolize NE
54
Soma
Neuron cell body
55
Neurite
Process extending from cell body of neuron
56
Dendrite
Receives impulses from other neurons
56
Axon
carries action potentials away from soma
57
how many cranial nerves`
12 pairs
58
How many spinal nerves
31 pairs
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
59
Cerebrum job
Generate motor function.
Process info.
Higher order thinking
60
Cerebellum job
equilibrium
coordination
muscle tone
achieve motor learning tasks.
61
Brainstem jobs
Flow of info between cerebrum and spinal chord.
Breathing,
Consciousness.
BP.
HR.
Sleep.
62
Cortex of brain
gray matter surface of brain
63
Gyri
Folds of brain
64
Sulci
Fissures of brain
65
Interneurons
In the gray matter of the spinal chord.
Translate between afferent and efferent nerves
66
White matter
Axons
67
Gray matter
cell bodies
68
What column of spinal chord is only sensory
Dorsal column
69
What column of spinal chord is both sensory and motor
Ventral and lateral
70
Three extracellular fluid compartments of CNS
Inside vascular system (blood plasma).
Between neural and glial cells (interstitial fluid).
In ventricular system and subarachnoid space (CSF)
71
Why is regulation of brain fluids important
Increased pressure leads to decreased perfusion.
Increased pressure can cause herniation.
Ionic environments effects neuronal firing.
72
Where does CSF come from
Derived from blood plasma.
Continuously secreted by choroid plexus.
Exits fourth ventricle into subarachnoid space and drains into venous system through arachnod granulations.
73
Functions of CSF
Protection
Homeostasis
Waste removal
74
Choroid Plexus
Network of blood vessels in each ventricle.
Made of pia mater CT and epithelial cells.
Filters blood plasma to make CSF.
Tight junctions to maintain blood-CSF barrier.
Similar to plasma but less protein
75
Where on the spine is a lumbar puncture done
Between L3 and L4
76
Blood brain barrier (BBB)
Highly selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells.
Small lipophilic substances can go through.
Glucose enters through facilitated diffusion with GLUT-1 protein
77
Things that can disrupt BBB
Hypertension
Hyperosmolality
Microwaves
Radiation
Infection
Trauma
78
Unipolar neuron
one neurite
79
Bipolar neuron
Two neurites
80
Multipolar neurons
Three or more neurites
81
Golgi Type I
Longer axon.
Connect different parts of system.
In pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex, motor cells of spinal chord
82
Golgi type II
Shorter axon.
In local v
83
Glial cells
Support cells that provide nutrients and energy to neurons.
10x more glial cells than neurons in brain.
Ependymal cells, astrocytes, microglia, and myelinating glia (oligodendrocytes and schwann cells)
84
Ependymal cells
Ciliated epithelial glial cells.
Line ventricles/central canal.
Produce CSF
85
Astrocytes
Glial cell that maintains BBB.
Provides structural scaffold for neurons.
Stores glycogen and provides neurons with lactate for energy.
Maintains stable K in brain.
Removes neurotransmitters from extracellular fluid.
86
Microglia
Glial cell that functions like macrophage in immune respnse of the brain
87
Oligodendrocyte
Glial cell that produces myelin sheaths in the CNS.
Myelinate multiple neurons
88
Schwann cell
Glial cell that produces myelin sheaths in the PNS.
Only myelinate one axon
89
necrosis
Cell lysis and inflammation usually a rapid process.
Seen in acute trauma or stroke
90
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death that does not cause inflammation
91
Gliosis
Proliferation of astrocytes secondary to CNS injury (scarring).
Long term effect of stroke, MS, Alzheimer's
92
Gliosis
Scar tissue in brain
93
Generation of action potential steps
1. Threshold met.
2. Na channels open and Na goes into cell (depolarization).
3. K channels open and K goes out of cell (repolarization).
4. Voltage drops below resting potential (Hyperpolarization)
94
Glycine
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord.
Binds to Cl- ligand gated channels
95
Serotonin
Important in limbic function
96
Chatecholamines
Function as neurotransmitters and hormones.
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
97
What releases norepinephrine
postganglionic neurons of sympathetic nervous system
98
Mu opiod receptor
Bind to beta endorphins causing inhibition of substance P protein (pain protein). Also inhibiting the release of GABA which results in excess dopamine
99
What are the attributes of stimulus
MILD
Modality (taste, smell touch, vision, hearing)
Intensity
Location
Duration
100
Merkel's disk
Sense steady pressure.
Slowly adapting
101
Messiner's corpuscle
Sense light pressure.
Rapidly adapting
102
Ruggini endings
Sense stretching skin.
Slowly adapting
103
Pacinian corpuscle
Sense vibrations.
Very rapidly adapting
104
Spinotharamic tract
Sensory.
3 neuron chain.
Decussation at spinal cord.
Temp, pain, and localizing touch.
105
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex
Postcentral gyrus
106
Secondary somatosensory cortex
Posterior parietal cortex.
Integrates touch with other sensations (recognizing objects).
107
Where is pain felt during myocardial infarction
All over left side above abdomen.
108
Where is pain from hepatitis felt
Right shoulder
109
Where is pain from ruptured spleen flet
Left shoulder
110
Where is. pain from stomach ulcer or cancer felt
Midback between scapula or epigastrium
111
Where is pain from lower lobe pneumonia felt
Upper quadrant of abdomen on same side as pneumonia
112
Where is pain from appendicitis from
Periumbilical area
113
Where is pain from kidney stone felt
Flank radiating to groin
114
Pain gating
Interneuron in spinal cordreleases enkephalins (opioids) to inhibit pain pathways between first and second order neurons so you can run away when hurt.
115
Upper motor neurons
Regulate voluntary movements.
Mostly inhibitory making your body not over do movements or overreact
Cell bodies in brain or brainstem.
Lesions cause spastic paralysis, hyperreflexia, positive babinski, increased tone, stroke
116
Spinal neurons
May be excitatory or inhibitory.
Form extensive circuits.
117
Type Ia sensory fibers
Muscle spindles
Very fast conduction.
Conveys info about muscle STRETCH and SPEED.
118
Gama motor neurons
Innervate intrafusal muscle fibers.
Cell bodies in ventral grey matter of spinal chord.
Regulate muscle spindle sensitivity.
119
Type Ib sensory fibers
In the tendons.
Provide info about muscle FORCE
120
Myotatic Reflex
Tapping on tendon makes muscle stretch (like patellar reflex)
121
Flexor-Withdrawal reflex
Rapidly removes limb from pain and sticks out opposite limb for support.
122
Corticospinal tract (pyramidal)
Lateral descending motor pathway.
Originate in motor cortex and crosses at medullary pyramids.
Lesions above medullary pyramids result in contralteral weakness.
Lesions below medullary pyramids result in ipsilateral weakness.
123
Rubrospinal tract
Lateral descending motor pathway.
Originates in red nucleus of midbrain and crosses immediately.
Controls muscle tone in flexor groups.
Decorticate posturing indicates damage immediately rostral to red nucleus.
Decerebrate posturing indicates midbrain lesion that involves red nucleus
124
Decerebrate posture
Lesion includes red nucleus.
Extensors predominate.
125
Decorticate posture
Lesion rostral to red nucleus.
Flexors predominate
126
Ventromedial pathways
provide info from vestibular and visual system about body position and balance.
Neurons DO NOT cross.
127
Vestibulospinal
Ventromedial pathway that does posture and equilibrium.
128
Tectospinal
Ventromedial pathway that makes head and eyes move in direction of stimulus.
129
Reticulospinal
Venntromedial pathway that does posture
130
Lower motor neurons
Cell bodies in anterior horn of spinal chord.
Lesion causes Flaccid paralysis, areflexia, decreased tone, atrophy, fasiculatoins, polio
131
Basal Ganglia job
inhibit unwanted movement
132
Direct pathway of motor loop
Inhibitory via GABAergic neurons
133
Indirect pathway of motor loop
Excitatory.
134
Cerebellum fuctions
Coordinate
135
Hypothalamus job
Control homeostatic functions.
Eating.
Circadian rhythms.
Sex drive.
Temp regulation,
136
Reticular formation job
Level of consciousness and general arousal (how awake they are).
releases neurotransmitters that regulate wakefulness (serotonergic), arousal (noradrenergic), attention and memory (cholinergic), and voluntary movement and rewards (dopaminergic)
137
Limbic system job
Emotions
138
What temp is considered a fever
100.4ºF
139
Peripheral thermoreceptors
In the skin.
Info about body surface temp.
140
Central thermoreceptors
In the hypothalamus.
Info about core temp.
141
What causes fever
Cytokines released by immune cells bc of infection.
Capilary endothelial cells in BBB release prostaglandin E2 that stimulates hypothalamus to raise set-point temp
142
Non REM sleep
HR and RR reduces.
Muscles relax
Three stages.
Stage three is most restful
143
REM
Dreaming.
Awake brain in paralyzed body
144
Contigulate cortex
Part of limbic system.
Highest levels of cognition.
Sensations of emotions are perceived.
145
Hippocampus
Part of limbic system.
Conversion of short-term to long-term memory.
Does negative feedback on fear response in response to increased cortisol levels.
146
Amygdala
Part of limbic system.
Strong emotions like fear and agression.
Links emotions to memories
147
Cognitive fear
Learned response that creates sensation of fear.
148
Reactive fear
Response to direct threat
149
Declarative memory
Facts and events that can be consciously recalled
150
Nondeclarative memory
Not consciously recalled.
Like muscle memory.
Learned emotion.
Conditioned reflexes (Pavlov's dogs)
151
Broca's Area
In frontal lobe.
Production and movement of tongue and mouth needed to speak.
Can't find the words.
152
Wernicke's area
In temporal lobe.
Understanding and meaning.
Processing.
Speaking nonsense.
153
Palpebral conjunctiva
Covers the inner side of the eyelid.
154
Orbicularis oculi muscle
Closes the eye.
Innervated by CN VII
155
Levator palpebrae superioris muscle
Elevates upper eyelid.
Innervated by CN III.
156
Superior Tarsal Muscle
Elevates the eyelid.
Innervated by sympathetic nerves
157
Sclera
"White of the eye"
Protective ehite fibrous opaque covering the eye.
Continuous with dura mater
158
Only transparent regions of eye
Lens and cornea
159
Cornea
Curved transparent region where light enters front of eye.
Bends to refract light onto retina
Sensory inervation from CN V
160
Lacrimal gland
Releases Aqueous part of tears
161
Conjunctiva
Releases Mucous part of tears
162
Meimbomian gland
Releases Oil part of tears
163
Nasolacrimal duct
Where tears drain into.
Why crying gives you a runny nose.
164
Vascular choroid
Highly vascular CT between sclera and retina.
WHere everything gets its nutrients
165
Iris
Colored part of eye.
Controls pupil size
166
Pupil
Hole in center of eye.
Diamerter controled by muscles of iris
167
Mydriasis
Pupil dilation to allow light into eye either bc its dark or focusing on something far away.
mediated by alpha1 andrenergic receptor stimulation
168
Miosis
Pupil constricts in bright light or to focus on something near.
Mediated by M3 cholinergenic receptor stimulation
169
Ciliary Body
Contains ciliary muscle and ciliary epithelium
170
Ciliary muscles
Contract to lower tension in suspensory ligaments to cause lens to become more round.
171
Ciliary epithelium
Secretes aqueous humor
172
Uvea
Iris
Ciliary Body
Choroid
173
Lens
Transparent behind the cornes.
Ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments effect curvature to focus eyesight.
174
Optic apparatus of the eye
Lens + Cornea
175
Anterior chamber
Space between the cornea and lens including the iris and ciliary body filled with aqueous humor
176
Aqueous humor
Fluid continuously being secreted and reabsorbed in the anterior chamber of the eye.
Constantly secreted from ciliary epithelial cells into the posterior compartment of anterior chamber. Flows into the anterior compartment through the pupil.
Drains into venous system via Canal of Schlemm
177
Posterior chamber
Space behind lens that extends to the posterior side of the interior eyeball where retina is located.
Filled with vitreous humor.
178
Vitreous humor
Fluid that Fills the posterior chamber
179
Posterior compartment
Part of the anterior chamber.
Between iris and lens
180
Anterior compartment
Part of anterior chamber.
Between cornea and iris.
181
Intraocular pressure
Around 15mm Hg.
balance between secretion and absorption of aqueous humor
182
Retina fovea (Fovea centralis)
Center of retina where light is focused.
High concentration of photoreceptors.
Highest level of visual acuity
183
Macula
Area surrounding fovea.
Responsible for central vision
184
Optic Disc
Blind spot (no photo receptors)
Consists of fibers from optic nerve (CN II)
185
What's weird about photoreceptors when it comes to polarization
They are excited by hyperpolarization instead of depolarization.
Depolarize in absence of stimuli (light) activating cGMP cation channels for Na to enter
186
Scotopic
Low light
187
Photopic
Well-lit
188
Rods
Highly sensitive to light.
In periphery of retina.
Let us see in darker conditions.
Contain rhodopsin in outer segment.
Low acuity
189
Cones
In center of retina-Retina Fovea
Outer segment has photopsin
functions best in lots of light.
High-acuity
190
Three types of cone
Blue (S-short wavelength)
Green (M-medium wavelength)
Red (L-long wavelength)
191
Optic Chasm
Where the optic nerves meet
192
Suspensory ligaments
Keep lens flat and under tension.
193
3 Cs of the eye mediated by parasympathetic.
Convergence of eyes.
Constriction of pupils
Contraction of ciliary muscles
194
Myopia
Nearsightedness.
Light from distant object focused in front of retina.
Eyeball too long
Need concave (diverging) lense to fix
195
Hyperopia
Farsightedness.
Short eyeball.
Need convex (converging) lens to fix.
196
Presbyopia
Lowering in elasticity and accommodation of lens with age.
need bifocals
197
Astigmatism
Incorrect curvature of lens.
Two different focal distances.
Blurry vision.
Need glasses with cylindrical lenses.
198
papilla
bumps on tongue with lots of taste buds.
199
Taste receptor cells
Have microvilla and taste pores
200
Is taste transduction depolarization or repolarization
Depolarization that leads to Ca entry into cell,
201
Salty taste
Senses Na concentration adn depolarization of TRC
202
Sourness
Responds to acidic H+ concentrations.
Reduced K conductance depolarize TRC
203
Bitterness
Direct binding to K channels and changes in second messenger pathways
204
Sweetness
Glucose dissolved in saliva
205
Umami
Tasted in response to amino acid (mostly glutamate
206
What Cranial Nerve does anterior 2/3rd of tongue taste
VII - facial
207
What cranial nerve does posterior 1/3rd taste
IX - glossopharangeal
208
Primary sensory neurons of gustatory
Synapse of gustatory nucleus of medulla
209
Second order neurons of gustatory
Ascend to thalamus
210
Third order neurons of gustatory
Relayed to primary gustatory cortex
211
Olfactory receptor cells
Bipolar
Peripheral neurite goes to nasal membrane and olfactory epithelium.
Central axon joins olfactory nerve.
Enter brain through hole in cribiform plate of olfactory foramina
212
Olfactory cilia
On peripheral neurite.
Project into mucus which contains odorant binding proteins over nasal membrane.
Come in contact with odorant trapped in mucus
213
G protein Golf
stimulated by olfactory receptor proteins.
Stimulates adenylyl cyclase increasing creation of cAMP.
cAMP opens channels causing depolarization..
Voltage gated Ca channels open increasing depolarization.
214
Limbic System
Where smell becomes part of long term memory
215
Vestibular aparatus
3 Semicircular canals + otolith organs
216
Otolith organs
utricle and saccule has two endolymph filled chambers with labyrinth detect tilting of head and linear acceleration
217
Macula
Where vestibular hair cells are found.
218
Stereocilia
Vestibular hair cells finger like projections.
Movement of head bends them displacing the otoliths causing hair cells to be depolarized.
Same for audio receptor hairs
219
Otoliths
Calcium carbonate crystals on top of otolithic channels.
Displaced by movement of head causing hair cells to depolarize
220
What two signals are transduced by the otolith organs
Static angle (tilting) of head
Linear acceleration
221
Three semicircular canals
Superior/Anterior - yes
Horizontal - no
Posterior- idk
222
Cupula
Gelatinous mass that the sterio cilia project into.
223
Scarpa's Ganglion
Where primary afferent vestibular neurons are located in the swelling on vestibular nerve
224
What cranial nerve travels in vestibular part of vestibular nucleus of brainstem
CN VIII
225
Second order vestibular neurons
Relay to cerebellum to coordinate movements using info about body position
226
Vestibuloocular reflex
Makes eyes turn opposite rotation of head keeping object in view.
Relies on CN III, IV, VI
227
Vertigo
dizziness
228
Ossicles
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrups)
229
Eustachian tube jobs
Links middle ear to nasopharynx.
Equalizes air pressure between middle ear and nasopharynx
Protect middle ear from reflux
Clear middle ear secretion
230
Attenuation reflex
Tensor tympani and muscles contract and stiffen ossicles to lower transmission of vibrations to inner ear during lots of loud noise to protect hair cells from damage from excess vibration.
231
cochlea
Auditory part of labyrinth.
Three coiled fluid filled tubes (scala vestibuli, scala media, scala tympani)
232
Scala vestibuli
Top tube of cochlea.
Filled with perilymph
Low K high NA
continuous with scala tympani via helicotrema
233
Scala media
Cochlear duct (middle tube)
Filled with endolymph.
Has neuro-epithelium called organ of corti
High K low NA
Stria vascularis secretes endolymph
234
Scala tympani
Bottom tube of cochlea.
Filled with perilymph
Low K High NA.
Continuous with scala vestibuli via helicotrema
235
Helicotrema
Apex of cochlea where ttympani and vestibuli
236
Endocochlear potential difference
Caused by difference of K in perilymph and endolymph
237
Reissner's (vestibular) membrane
separates scala vestibuli from scala media
238
Basilar membrane
Separates scala tympani from scala media
239
Organ of corti
Locatoin for audiotry transduction above basilar membrane
240
Auditory receptors (sensory hair cells)
Rest on basilar membrane that moves causing the hairs to bend
241
Tectorial membrane
Gelatinous membrane where tips of stereocilia of auditory receptor hairs are embedded
242
What direction does the stereocilia bend to be depolarized causing opening of Ca channels
Toward kinocilium
243
Inner hair cells
Responsible for auditory transduction
Neurites from inner hair cells connect to spiral ganglion
244
Outer hair cells
Amplify traveling wave that passes along basilar membrane.
If damaged can lead to deafness.
Aminoglycoside antibiotics can damage them
245
Transmission of soudnd waves
TM vibrations --> ossicles -->liquid vibrations in cohclea --> transformed into nerve impulses in auditory cortex of CNS
246
Where do high freq sounds make basilar membrane move
Base of cochlea
247
Where do low freq sounds make basilar membrane move
apex (hericotrema)
248
Amplitude
How high wave is
Loudness
dB
249
Loudest human can hear
130 dB
250
Frequence
Pitch
Waves per unit time
251
Weber test
Stick tuning fork on head
252
Rinne test
put tuning fork on mastoid process then put in front of ear
253
Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscus
Ascending tract
Three neuron chain
Crosses at medulla
Info about discriminative touch, vibration, proprioception, and pressure
