exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the sum of all processes by which an organism takes in and assimilates food, including digestion and absorption for maintenance, promoting growth, and reproduction?
A
nutrition
2
Q
A _________________ is any chemical element or compound in the diet that supports normal maintenance of life processes (reproduction, growth, or lactation)
A
nutrient
Nutrients are essential for sustaining biological functions.
3
Q
What is an essential nutrient?
A
a nutrient that is required in the diet
Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized sufficiently by the body.
4
Q
Why must essential nutrients be required in the diet?
A
they can’t be synthesized in the body in high enough amounts to help the body
This highlights the importance of dietary sources for essential nutrients.
5
Q
What are the 3 types of digestion?
A
mechanical, chemical, microbial
Each type of digestion plays a role in breaking down food for absorption.
6
Q
What is digestion?
A
the preparation of food or feed for absorption
Digestion involves various processes to convert food into absorbable forms.
7
Q
Where does absorption in the body mostly take place?
A
small intestine
The small intestine is the primary site for nutrient absorption.
8
Q
What is absorption?
A
passage of food from intestines into the blood stream
Absorption is crucial for nutrient uptake into the body.
9
Q
_______________ changes based on what is being fed
A
digestibility
Digestibility varies with the type of food consumed.
10
Q
What is digestibility?
A
the amount of nutrient absorbed by the animal
High digestibility indicates effective nutrient absorption.
11
Q
What is anabolism?
A
build up of tissue
Anabolism is a metabolic process that promotes growth and repair.
12
Q
What is catabolism?
A
Break down of tissues
Catabolism is the metabolic process that breaks down molecules to obtain energy.
13
Q
What is metabolism?
A
Sum of all biochemical processes of nutrients to provide energy to the body
Metabolism includes both catabolic and anabolic processes.
14
Q
What must be met first before any other requirements?
A
Maintenance
Maintenance refers to the energy and nutrients required to maintain existing tissues and bodily functions.
15
Q
What is maintenance?
A
Replacing what’s already there
Maintenance ensures that the body continues to function effectively without necessarily adding new tissue.
16
Q
____________________ is the portion of food nutrients which support bodily processes which go on regardless of new tissue development or products formed.
A
Maintenance
17
Q
What is growth?
A
Increase in body weight or size
Growth can refer to both physical size and weight gain in organisms.
18
Q
What is hyperplasia?
A
Increase in cell number (fat)
Hyperplasia is a type of growth that involves an increase in the number of cells.
19
Q
What is hypertrophy?
A
Increase in cell size (muscle)
Hypertrophy is often associated with muscle growth through increased size of muscle fibers.
20
Q
What is production?
A
The harvesting or refinement of something natural
Production can refer to various biological outputs such as milk, meat, or fibers.
21
Q
What are the 3 products from the body?
A
- Lactation
- Meat
- Hair/wool
These products are outputs of metabolic processes in animals.
22
Q
Water is both ___________________ and ____________________.
A
Intracellular, Extracellular
23
Q
What are the 4 functions of water?
A
- Nutrient transportation
- Solvent
- Temperature control
- Lubrication
Water plays crucial roles in biological systems, including supporting metabolic processes.
24
Q
Water makes up _____ to ______% of body weight.
A
45-85%
25
Within the animal, water facilitates what 3 things?
* digestion
* absorption
* metabolism
## Footnote
These functions are crucial for the overall health and efficiency of biological processes.
26
Water helps to eliminate ________________ and ___________
* imbalances
* toxins
## Footnote
This elimination is essential for maintaining homeostasis and detoxifying the body.
27
What is dry matter?
feed without water
## Footnote
Dry matter is important for understanding the nutrient content of feed.
28
What are proteins?
long chains of amino acids
## Footnote
Proteins play a vital role in the structure and function of cells.
29
What group determines the protein?
R group
## Footnote
The R group varies among amino acids and determines their specific characteristics.
30
What is typically the most expensive nutrient?
protein
## Footnote
The cost of protein can significantly impact animal feed formulations.
31
What is non-protein nitrogen?
urea
## Footnote
Urea can be used by ruminants to synthesize protein in the body.
32
What are the 3 main types of carbohydrates discussed?
* monosaccharides
* disaccharides
* polysaccharides
## Footnote
Each type of carbohydrate has different functions and properties in nutrition.
33
What is formed by photosynthesis in plants?
carbohydrates
## Footnote
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy.
34
What is the fundamental unit of carbohydrates?
glucose
## Footnote
Glucose is a primary energy source for living organisms.
35
The polysaccharides, starch and sugar, have what bonds?
alpha
## Footnote
Alpha bonds are easier for animals to digest compared to beta bonds.
36
The polysaccharide, fiber, have what bonds?
beta
## Footnote
Beta bonds are more resistant to digestion, contributing to fiber's health benefits.
37
What is a primary plant structural component?
cellulose
## Footnote
Cellulose provides rigidity to plant cell walls and is a key component of dietary fiber.
38
Fat is ________x the amount of energy of carbohydrates
2.25x
## Footnote
This indicates the higher energy density of fats compared to carbohydrates.
39
lipids are also called what?
fats
40
fats are _______________ in water
insoluble
41
what bonds do saturated fats have?
single
42
what bonds do unsaturated fats have?
double
43
short chain fatty acids are absorbed into the ________________ immediately, while long chain fatty acids become parts of a ______________ then a _______________ before being absorbed
bloodstream, micelle, chylomicron
44
what are the 3 functions of lipids?
energy, insulation, protection
45
what kills microbes when overfed?
fat
46
saturated fats are _____________ at room temperature and come from _______________
solid, animals
47
unsaturated fats are _____________ at room temperature and come from ______________
liquid, plants
48
what are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K
49
what are the 2 water soluble vitamins?
B, C
50
what vitamin deficiency causes scurvy?
vitamin C
51
what is the unit of measurement for macrominerals?
lb/ton
52
what is the unit of measurement for microminerals?
ppm/ppb
53
What act as coenzymes and cofactors for reactions?
vitamins and minerals
54
Vitamins and minerals act as ________________ and _________________ for reactions.
coenzymes, cofactors
55
When a vitamin or mineral is a cofactor, it is a ______________ ion. It just needs to be _________________ in the reaction in order for it to proceed.
spectator, included
56
When a vitamin or mineral is a coenzyme, it must be _________________ to the enzyme in order for the reaction to proceed.
attached
57
Water content is highest at what stage of maturity?
fetuses and newborns
58
Water content is lowest at what stage of maturity?
adults
59
The amount of fat in tissues can alter the ___________ content of the body.
water
60
_____ to _____% of fat-free weight is made up of water.
70-75%
61
What must be known in order to estimate the body composition?
fat or water content
62
The omasum is also called what?
the butcher’s bible
63
Net water absorption in ruminants comes from what two places?
rumen and omasum
64
Temperature affects water ___________.
intake
65
High temperatures means a _______________ water intake.
lower
66
Low temperatures means a _______________ water intake.
higher
67
An animal doing more work means they require more what?
water
## Footnote
Increased physical activity leads to higher water consumption to maintain hydration.
68
What species are best at water retention?
sheep and goats
## Footnote
These species have adaptations that allow them to conserve water effectively.
69
What happens to a cow's eyes when they are dehydrated?
become sunken, dull
## Footnote
Dehydration often manifests in physical features like the eyes.
70
What happens when a horse is dehydrated?
reduced skin elasticity
## Footnote
Skin turgor is an important indicator of hydration status in horses.
71
What is often a fatal consequence of swine dehydration?
salt poisoning
## Footnote
High salt intake without adequate water can lead to severe health issues.
72
What are the first signs of swine dehydration?
thirst, constipation, skin irritation, lack of appetite
## Footnote
These symptoms indicate early stages of dehydration in swine.
73
What are more severe signs of swine dehydration?
nervousness, apparent deafness/blindness
## Footnote
Advanced dehydration can affect neurological functions.
74
Proteins = ________ kcal/g
5.7
## Footnote
This value reflects the energy provided by proteins in a diet.
75
The assumed average nitrogen content of protein is ______%
16
## Footnote
This is a standard estimate used in nutritional calculations.
76
Once nitrogen content of the feed is determined, what is the formula to determine the crude protein?
N% x 6.25 = %CP
## Footnote
This formula converts nitrogen content to crude protein percentage.
77
What do you multiply 6.25 by in order to find the percent crude protein?
N%
## Footnote
N% refers to the nitrogen percentage in the feed.
78
The crude protein formula is limited why?
it assumes all nitrogen in feed is protein
## Footnote
This assumption can lead to inaccuracies in nutritional assessments.
79
What is the one semi-essential amino acid?
arginine
## Footnote
Arginine is considered semi-essential because it is needed in higher amounts during certain life stages.
80
What is the protein structure when it's a linear sequence of amino acids?
primary
## Footnote
The primary structure is crucial for determining the protein's overall shape and function.
81
What is the protein structure when it's arranged in a helix formation?
secondary
82
What is the protein structure when it's a helix further folded onto itself?
tertiary
83
What is the protein structure when there are two or more polypeptide chains united by non-covalent bonds?
quaternary
84
When feeding urea, what do microbes need in order to synthesize amino acids?
carbohydrates
85
What type of protein do microbes NOT synthesize?
by-pass protein
86
Where is true protein digested?
small intestine
87
What is ammonia toxicity a sign of?
overfeeding protein
88
Intact dietary protein is used in acid and enzyme _________________
hydrolysis
89
Gross energy results in energy loss through what?
feces
90
Digestible energy results in energy loss through what?
urine and gas
91
Metabolizable energy results in energy loss through what?
heat increment (fermentation)
92
Net energy is considered to be __________________ energy
partitioned
93
What is the first portion of net energy?
net maintenance
94
What does the second portion of net energy consist of?
net growth and lactation
95
Carbohydrates = ___ kcal/g
4.1
96
What are the end products of digestion in ruminants?
monosaccharides, volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate)
## Footnote
These are the primary metabolic products utilized for energy and nutrition in ruminants.
97
What does VFA stand for?
volatile fatty acid
## Footnote
VFAs are crucial energy sources for ruminants, produced during fermentation in the rumen.
98
What is the VFA acetate responsible for?
ATP production
## Footnote
Acetate is utilized by ruminants as a primary energy source.
99
What is the VFA propionate responsible for?
marbling, fat deposition
## Footnote
Propionate plays a role in the synthesis of glucose and fatty acids.
100
What is the VFA butyrate responsible for?
absorbs directly into rumen wall (rumen contractions)
## Footnote
Butyrate is important for energy and health of the rumen lining.
101
_____________ regulates glucose uptake (says yes or no to more)
insulin
## Footnote
Insulin is a hormone that helps cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream.
102
_______________ regulates the breakdown of glucose
glucagon
## Footnote
Glucagon is a hormone that promotes the release of glucose into the bloodstream.
103
An easy way to remember the function of glucagon: glucagon =________________ ____________
glucose gone
## Footnote
This mnemonic helps recall that glucagon increases blood sugar levels.
104
Once absorbed, glucose is either stored as _________________ or used as___________
glycogen, fuel
## Footnote
Glycogen serves as a storage form of glucose for energy.
105
Fats = _____ kcal/g
9.4
## Footnote
This indicates the energy density of fats compared to carbohydrates and proteins.
106
What are the 3 components of micelles?
free fatty acids (FFA), glycerol, monoglycerides
## Footnote
Micelles aid in the absorption of dietary fats in the intestine.
107
______________________ __________________ breaks down chylomicrons to enter the cell
lipoprotein lipase
## Footnote
This enzyme is essential for the hydrolysis of triglycerides in chylomicrons.
108
The breakdown of chylomicrons and fat to enter the cell is stimulated by________________
insulin
## Footnote
Insulin plays a crucial role in the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates.
109
Generally, vitamins and minerals are not factored in ___________________
calorically
## Footnote
Vitamins and minerals do not provide energy (calories) like macronutrients do.
110
What is vitamin A also called?
retinol
## Footnote
Retinol is the active form of vitamin A in the body.
111
What is vitamin D also called?
cholecalciferol
## Footnote
Cholecalciferol is one of the forms of vitamin D produced in the skin in response to sunlight.
112
What is vitamin E also called?
alpha-tocopherol
## Footnote
Alpha-tocopherol is the most active form of vitamin E in humans.
113
What is vitamin C also called?
ascorbic acid
## Footnote
Ascorbic acid is essential for the synthesis of collagen and various metabolic processes.
114
What is proximate analysis measured with?
weende system
## Footnote
The Weende system is a method used for analyzing the composition of animal feed.
115
What is the Weende system?
the guaranteed nutrition analysis on a feed label
## Footnote
It provides a standardized way to report the nutritional content of feed.
116
___________ ______________ is essential to know what is in a feed ingredient to economically meet the animal's requirements.
feed analysis
## Footnote
Feed analysis helps in formulating diets that meet nutritional needs efficiently.
117
What are the 6 components of proximate analysis?
* ash (minerals)
* dry matter
* crude protein
* crude fiber
* ether extract (crude fat)
* nitrogen free extract
## Footnote
These components provide a comprehensive overview of the nutritional value of feed.
118
What does dry matter measure?
water content of feed
## Footnote
Dry matter is crucial for understanding the nutrient concentration in feed.
119
Feed with moisture is considered _______ ________
as-fed
## Footnote
As-fed refers to the feed in its natural state, including all moisture.
120
How do you calculate dry matter (DM)?
DM = as-fed - moisture
## Footnote
This formula allows for the determination of the nutrient content of the feed without water.
121
hay has ____________ moisture than silage
less
## Footnote
This indicates that hay is drier compared to silage.
122
what is a limitation of proximate analysis for dry matter?
it doesn't provide info on dry matter composition
## Footnote
Proximate analysis is limited in that it assumes all nitrogen in feed is protein.
123
how do you calculate dry matter intake?
#lbs consumer x %DM = #lbs DM intake
## Footnote
This formula allows for the calculation of dry matter intake based on the weight of the consumer and the percentage of dry matter.
124
the ___________ method is an outdated method used to measure the nitrogen content of a sample
kjedahl
## Footnote
The Kjeldahl method historically measured nitrogen but has been replaced by more efficient methods.
125
we assumed the average nitrogen content of protein is _____%
16
## Footnote
This percentage is a standard assumption in nutritional science.
126
what are the two limitations of crude protein?
1. assumes all N in feed is protein
2. no info on AA composition or digestibility
127
what is the more safe and new procedure than Kjeldahl for crude protein calculation?
Leco
## Footnote
The Leco method is considered safer and more efficient compared to the Kjeldahl method.
128
what are two limitations of the Leco procedure?
1. initially expensive 2. still assumes all nitrogen is protein
## Footnote
Despite being an advancement, the Leco procedure still carries over some limitations from older methods.
129
ether extract is also called ______________ _____________
crude fat
## Footnote
Ether extract refers to the fat extracted from a sample using ether.
130
once ether dissolves fat and then evaporates it is ____________________________
ether extract
## Footnote
The process of dissolving fat with ether and then evaporating the ether leaves behind the extracted fat.
131
what is a limitation of ether extract?
no info on individual fatty acids
## Footnote
Ether extract does not provide detailed information about the composition of fatty acids.
132
after ether extraction, the ether free extract is boiled in acid and alkali solutions. what are you left with?
crude fiber (CF) and ash
## Footnote
This process separates the remaining components of the sample after ether extraction.
133
What is the residue assumed to be after burning remaining crude fiber and ash in a furnace?
Minerals (ash)
## Footnote
The process of burning helps in determining the inorganic mineral content of the sample.
134
How would you calculate the crude fiber after it has been burnt in the furnace?
Subtract the total weight of the CF and ash and subtract the residue weight (CF + ash sample weight) - residue weight = CF
## Footnote
This calculation helps in quantifying the crude fiber content after accounting for the inorganic residue.
135
What are the two components of carbohydrates in a feed sample analyzed with proximate analysis?
1. Crude fiber (CF)
2. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE)
136
Proximate analysis for carbohydrates is limited with how well it represents the ____________ (fiber) and _________________________ CHO (starch, sugars) in forages.
structural, non-structural
## Footnote
This distinction is important for understanding the digestibility and nutritional value of forages.
137
What system overcomes the limitations of crude fiber?
Detergent system or van Soest method
## Footnote
This method provides a more accurate analysis of fiber components in feed.
138
What 2 fractions are defined by the van Soest method?
1. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
2. Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
## Footnote
These fractions help in understanding the digestibility and nutritional value of feed.
139
All species are able to digest what portion of the van Soest method?
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
## Footnote
NDF represents the fibrous portion of the feed that is generally digestible by most species.
140
ONLY horses and ruminants are able to digest what portion of the van Soest method?
Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
## Footnote
ADF includes components that are more challenging to digest, and only certain species have the capacity to break them down.
141
What portion of the van Soest method is NOT digestible by any species?
Lignin
## Footnote
Lignin is a complex organic polymer that provides rigidity to plant cell walls but is indigestible.
142
What was removed from the feed sample after being boiled in neutral detergent for the van Soest method?
Neutral detergent solubles
## Footnote
This step helps in isolating the fiber components by removing soluble carbohydrates.
143
What was removed from the feed sample after being boiled in acid detergent for the van Soest method?
Acid detergent solubles
## Footnote
This process removes soluble components and isolates the acid detergent fiber for further analysis.
144
What was dissolved from the feed sample after being boiled in 72% H2SO4 for the Van Soest method?
cellulose
145
What 3 components make up neutral detergent fiber (NDF)?
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin
146
What 2 components make up acid detergent fiber (ADF)?
cellulose, lignin
147
Neutral detergent fibers are major constituents of what?
plant cell walls
148
What approximates the less digestible fractions of fiber?
acid detergent fiber (ADF)
149
What is bomb calorimetry measuring?
calories
150
1 calorie is needed to heat 1 gram of what?
H2O
151
What is an analytical procedure used for fatty acids?
gas chromatography
152
What is an analytical procedure used for amino acids?
high performance liquid chromatography
153
What is an analytical procedure used for individual minerals?
atomic absorption
154
What does near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) analyze?
infrared light at different wavelengths
155
Different molecular bonds reflect and absorb different __________.
wavelengths
156
What are some limitations of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS)?
many samples needed and accuracy may vary
157
What two species have requirements for the correct amount of individual amino acids but not necessarily crude protein?
pigs and poultry
158
What meets much of the ruminants amino acid requirements?
The composition of microbial proteins
## Footnote
Microbial proteins are synthesized by microorganisms in the rumen and are a significant source of amino acids for ruminants.
159
What are amino acid requirements usually based on?
Maximum average daily gain (ADG)
## Footnote
ADG is a common metric used to assess growth performance in livestock.
160
Fill in the blank: _________________ higher amino acids will further improve F/G and carcass characteristics.
Slightly
161
What does a breakpoint represent?
The max ADG possible while keeping the animal healthy and not paying too much
## Footnote
A breakpoint is an important concept in nutrition that indicates optimal feeding levels.
162
What does feed to gain (F/G) represent?
Lbs. fed per 1 lb. gained
## Footnote
F/G is a measure of feed efficiency in livestock production.
163
More amino acids leads to more __________________ __________________.
Protein synthesis
164
More protein means less __________.
Fat
165
Fat requires more _______________ to deposit than protein.
Energy
166
Why will amino acid requirements vary?
Based on what your goal is
## Footnote
Goals can include maximizing growth, feed efficiency, or carcass quality.
167
The decision to maximize ONLY growth rate or growth (max ADG), F/G, and carcass traits will depend on ___________________.
Economics
168
What is high quality protein?
Protein that has all essential amino acids and easily digested
## Footnote
High quality proteins are crucial for optimal animal growth and health.
169
What are 2 examples of high value proteins?
* Egg proteins
* Milk proteins
170
What is an example of a low quality protein?
Zein (corn protein)
## Footnote
Low quality proteins may lack essential amino acids or have poor digestibility.
171
How do you calculate nitrogen balance for protein quality?
Nitrogen intake minus nitrogen excreted in feces and urine
## Footnote
Nitrogen balance is an important measure in assessing protein quality.
172
We ____________ protein sources to improve the amino acid profile of the diet.
mix
## Footnote
Mixing protein sources can help achieve a more balanced amino acid profile.
173
Does one protein source meet dietary requirements?
no
## Footnote
Typically, a combination of protein sources is necessary to meet all amino acid needs.
174
When soybeans are roasted, what happens to their digestibility?
increases
## Footnote
Roasting can enhance the digestibility of soybeans.
175
In swine and poultry, soybean meal can be replaced with _______________________________ _______________.
synthetic amino acids
## Footnote
Synthetic amino acids can provide a cost-effective alternative to traditional protein sources.
176
As long as all amino acid requirements are met, performance will be__________________.
similar
## Footnote
Meeting amino acid requirements is crucial for optimal performance in animals.
177
An increase in fiber means what?
decreased digestibility
## Footnote
High fiber content can lead to lower digestibility of feed.
178
What is found in raw soybeans?
trypsin inhibitor
## Footnote
Trypsin inhibitors can affect protein digestion in raw soybeans.
179
What is over-processing meat and bone meal due to?
heating
## Footnote
Excessive heating can degrade the nutritional quality of meat and bone meal.
180
Excess of one amino acid can _________________ absorption of a structurally similar amino acid.
inhibit
## Footnote
This phenomenon is known as competitive inhibition in amino acid absorption.
181
If there is excess leucine, what happens to isoleucine?
decreases
## Footnote
High levels of leucine can negatively impact the absorption of isoleucine.
182
If arginine were in excess, what amino acid could it inhibit absorption?
lysine
## Footnote
Arginine can compete with lysine for absorption in the intestines.
183
What are the 4 nucleotides in DNA?
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
## Footnote
These nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA.
184
Genes are located on ________________ within the ______________.
chromosomes, nucleus
## Footnote
Chromosomes house genes and are found in the cell nucleus.
185
cytosine binds to ______________
guanine
186
guanine binds to _______________
cytosine
187
adenine binds to ______________
thymine
188
thymine binds to _______________
adenine
189
what are the 4 nucleotides in RNA?
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
190
RNA comes from ___________
DNA
191
what is messenger RNA (mRNA)?
determines protein sequence, complimentary strand of DNA
192
what is transfer RNA (tRNA)?
contains anti-codon to corresponding mRNA, carries a single amino acid
193
what is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
structural component of ribosome
194
___________________ is the process where mRNA is read to produce a protein
translation
195
3 nucleotides = ?
a codon
196
tRNA contains the mRNA ______________ and is attached to an individual amino acid that the DNA coded for.
anticodon
197
what is the first step of protein synthesis?
DNA transcribed to mRNA strand
198
What is the second step of protein synthesis?
mRNA contains codes to synthesize protein
## Footnote
This step is crucial for translating genetic information into proteins.
199
What is the third step of protein synthesis?
tRNA binds to amino acids then tRNA-amino acid complex bonds to corresponding mRNA and synthesizes protein
## Footnote
This process involves the matching of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons.
200
What is deamination?
removal of amine group from an amino acid for excretion
## Footnote
Deamination is important for the body's nitrogen balance.
201
What is transamination?
the transfer of the amine group from one amino acid to make a non-essential amino acid
## Footnote
This process allows for the synthesis of amino acids that the body cannot obtain from the diet.
202
What is the urea cycle?
the process by which amino acids are broken down and excreted
## Footnote
The urea cycle helps eliminate excess nitrogen from the body.
203
What are the 3 major effects of overfeeding protein to livestock?
economic concerns, nitrogen excretion in animal waste, odor
## Footnote
Overfeeding protein can lead to environmental issues and economic inefficiencies.
204
The liver is essentially the ______________ of metabolism
boss
## Footnote
The liver plays a central role in regulating metabolic processes.
205
What does the leveling effect consist of for ruminant nitrogen metabolism?
dietary proteins and non-protein nitrogen
## Footnote
The leveling effect helps optimize nitrogen utilization in ruminants.
206
Rumen microbes are digested to produce ______________ _______________ ______________
free amino acids
## Footnote
This process is essential for the nutrition of ruminants.
207
There are no true amino acid requirements in ruminant nitrogen metabolism because of microbial __________________ and _________________
conversion, synthesis
## Footnote
Ruminants can synthesize amino acids due to their unique digestive systems.
208
What is glycogenesis?
synthesis of glycogen
## Footnote
Glycogenesis is a critical process for energy storage in the body.
209
What is glycogenolysis?
Breakdown of glycogen into glucose
## Footnote
Glycogenolysis is a process where glycogen is converted back into glucose to be used for energy.
210
What is glycolysis?
Breakdown of 1 glucose molecule to 2 pyruvate
## Footnote
Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first step in the breakdown of glucose.
211
What are the other 2 names for the TCA cycle?
Citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle
## Footnote
The TCA cycle is a key metabolic pathway that is involved in energy production.
212
What is the citric acid cycle?
An aerobic pathway in the mitochondria that uses Acetyl-CoA to produce the equivalent of 25 ATP per mole of glucose
## Footnote
The citric acid cycle is crucial for the aerobic respiration of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
213
What is gluconeogenesis?
Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
## Footnote
Gluconeogenesis is particularly important during fasting or intense exercise.
214
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
## Footnote
ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of the cell.
215
What is ATP?
The molecular unit of currency of intracellular energy transfer
## Footnote
ATP is essential for various biochemical processes in living organisms.
216
What does GTP stand for?
Guanosine triphosphate
## Footnote
GTP is similar to ATP and is involved in protein synthesis and signal transduction.
217
What is the function of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)?
Source of energy or an activator of substrates in metabolic reactions
## Footnote
GTP plays a significant role in the regulation of various biochemical processes.
218
1 GTP = 1 ____________
ATP
## Footnote
Both GTP and ATP can be interconverted in cellular metabolism.
219
What does NADH stand for?
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced)
## Footnote
NADH is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in the oxidation-reduction reactions.
220
What is NADH?
A reducing agent, donates electrons
## Footnote
NADH is vital for cellular respiration and energy production.
221
1 NADH = ______ ATP
2.5
222
What does FADH2 stand for?
flavin adenine dinucleotide (reduced)
223
What is FADH2?
an electron donor
224
1 FADH = _______ ATP
1.5
225
What are the 3 parts to lipoprotein metabolism?
chylomicron synthesis, secretion, and metabolism
226
Adipocytes are _____ fat cells used for _____________
storage, energy
227
Plasma albumin is found in the ________________ and other tissues
liver
228
All dietary ________________ is delivered to the liver then enters 4 different pathways
cholesterol
229
During fasting, adipocyte lipoprotein lipase (LPL) expression is _________________
reduced
230
During fasting, muscle cell expression is _________________
increased
231
Postprandially is considered to be a ___________ ______________
fed state
232
Postprandially, expression is ____________________ in adipocytes
upregulated
233
Postprandially, expression is ____________________ in muscle cells
upregulated
234
During a fasting state, ____________________ are actively being used
triglycerides
235
What does HL stand for?
hepatic lipase
236
What is hepatic lipase (HL)?
a glycoprotein that catabolizes the hydrolysis of tri-, di-, and mono-glycerides
237
Hepatic lipase is ________________ and ________________ by the liver.
synthesized, secreted
238
________________ ________________ catalyzes the remodeling of lipoprotein remnants resulting in more ______________ particles.
hepatic lipase, dense
239
In lipolysis, hormones bind to a _______________ (ex. thyroid hormone).
receptor
240
In lipolysis, the receptor stimulates what enzyme?
adenylate cyclase (cAMP)
241
_________________ starts a cascade of reactions which stimulate other enzymes which break down ___________ (beta oxidation).
cAMP, fat
242
An increase in white adipose tissue means an increase in _____________.
leptin
243
Leptin is considered to be a ______________ ________________ of food intake.
potent regulator
244
What gene is responsible for the production of leptin?
Ob
245
Satiety is never met in a mouse without the ability to produce _______________(Ob/ob).
leptin
246
What is brown adipose tissue?
type of fat needed for heat generation
247
The _______________ of brown adipose tissue is uncoupled with ATP production.
oxidation
248
the omega carbon is the most _______________ to the carboxyl group
distal
249
_________________ fatty acids contain a double bond between the 3rd and 4th carbon from the end
omega-3
250
________________ intake in the U.S. is one of the lowest in the world
omega-3
251
what fatty acid do americans overconsume?
omega-6
252
what is the current ratio of omega-6:omega-3 fatty acids?
10-25:1
253
name at least two of the beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids
1. infant brain development
2. reducing atherosclerosis
3. reducing some cancers
4. aids in blood glucose modulation in diabetics
5. immune function
254
omega-3 acids can ______________ animal performance
enhance
255
what 3 ways do omega-3s enhance animal performance?
1. immune modulation
2. glucose regulation
3. muscle growth
256
linoleic acid (C18:2) has __________ double bonds located on carbons ___ and___
cis, 9, 12
257
what does CLA stand for?
conjugated linoleic acid
258
what is conjugated linoleic acid?
describes any of the positional and geometrical isomers of linoleic acid
259
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) can have __________ or __________ double bonds and can be located on ________________ carbon pairs along the carbon chain
cis, trans, multiple
260
CLA is an intermediary product of _______________ _________________ of lipids
ruminal biohydration
261
What are the four things CLAs have been cited to do?
1. Reduce certain cancers
2. Reduce atherosclerosis
3. Aid in immune function
4. Reduce body fat in animals and humans
262
263
____________________, mainly glucose, are the end products of digestion in non-ruminants
monosaccharides
