Exam 1+2

Question 1

Cognitve Psychology (Neisser)

Answer 1

The study of all processes by which the stimulus is: 
Transformed
Reduced
Elaborated
Stored
Recovered/ Retrieved
Used

Question 2

Stimulus is stored…

Answer 2

The system changes as a function of experience, and a memory trace is formed (there is a consequence of neural processing of an event)

Question 3

Scientific Paradigm

Answer 3

Kuhn and the scientific revolution
When 1) methods and procedures, 2) assumptions 3) analogies used or 4) subject matter changes, is a new field of science

Question 4

Development of cognitive psychology out of philosophy

Answer 4

Wundt (1879) structuralism
Topics of study: language, memory, emotion, perception, attention
Relied heavily on introspection

Question 5

Demand Characteristics (Orne)

Answer 5

By thinking about thinking, you change the thinking

– you can’t verbalized some processes

Question 6

Historical root of cognitive psychology (Behaviorism)

Answer 6

John B. Watson had problems with introspection
(Brought scientific status, by putting emphasis on experimentation)
Manipulate IVs- stimuli
MeasureDV’s- responses

Question 7

Historical root of cognitive neuroscience (Linguistics)

Answer 7

Chomsky vs skinner
Language is special and doesn’t follow normal principles of acquisition
Highly structure, study of production vs comprehension
Nature vs nurture

Question 8

Other historical roots of cognitive psychology

Answer 8

Neuroscience (HM, Broca’s vs Wernicke)
Neuroimaging
Computer Science
(Information processing metaphor, levels of description (binary code to google), turing test)

Question 9

Advantages of Theories

Answer 9

Decreases number of relationships to be explained
Makes predictions
Details something about the nature of the organism

Question 10

Disadvantages of theories

Answer 10

May be premature in some cases to build theories (like if the data isn’t yet strong enough)
Could delay more applied breakthroughs to start utilizing these theories

Question 11

Converging operations

Answer 11

Any set of two mor more experimental operations that allows one to select amongst alternative accounts of a set of IV-DV relations

Question 12

Examples of Converging Operations

Answer 12

Perceptual defense studies (McGinnies)

• -Taboo vs Non-Taboo words
• -Perception vs response

Question 13

Pattern recognition

Answer 13

Remarkable ability to recognize direct sensory stimuli as the same pattern ( ability to read lots of different handwriting for example)

Question 14

Figure Ground Segmentation

Answer 14

Our visual. Auditory world is pretty cluttered- have to work out the initial pattern first, and then details

Question 15

Gestalt principle of proximity

Answer 15

By putting things closer together, more likely to recognize things as part of a group(group similar stimuli, interpret them base on information around, use preexisting understanding of certain shapes or stimuli and close the shape

Question 16

Template matching model

Answer 16

For pattern recognition, there can be remarkable variability in the pattern, yet constancy in the perception (speech) but context effects the outcome

Question 17

Feature Analytic Models

Answer 17

Patterns are first recognized by primitive features and pattern recognition is the convergence of these features

Question 18

Primitive features

Answer 18

Low level features beneath semantic features

Question 19

Gibson and Gibson

Answer 19

Critical in any domain to identify the features important for discriminating patterns within that domain-

Question 20

feature letter recognition

Answer 20

1) First step- in perception of letters is breaking down into features (some letters had higher reaction times because more similar features)

Question 21

Pandemonium model (Neisser and Selfridge)

Answer 21

“Image demon”- stores stimulus to persist in time
“Feature demons” ask this image demon if they have what it refers (one for right angles, one for vertical lines, one for discontinuous curves etc)
Each feature demons poke/yell at/ tickle “letter demons” that match their features, and the most tickled letter demon shouts the loudest- the decision demon then listens for the loudest shout

Question 22

Converging evidence for features from neuroscience

Answer 22

-Afterimages and detector mechanisms
• When we perceive the world around us, balance different feature detectors
-fatiguing motion receptors (spiral illusion)
-motion-induced blindness (image fatigue and recovery)

Question 23

Convergence of information

Answer 23

1) occurs at retina, and also in the occipital lobe itself

Wiesel and humble did this at the lobe level0 the strapped cat thing

Question 24

Benefits of COntext in letter perception

Answer 24

Cattell found that briefly letters in briefly presented strings are reported better in words than nonwords.

Question 25

Alternate accounts of Cattell results

Answer 25

Possibly, people quickly recognize the words, and report the letters from their spelling knowledge, so it may not be a real effect on the preception/seeing of the letters. • Maybe people are just good at guessing based on approximations to English orthography

Question 26

McClelland and Rumelhart's interactive activation framework

Answer 26

Both top down and bottom up processes Emphasis on cascading processing vs staged processing Top-down input from partially activated word level representations accounts for better perception of letters within words than nonwords. • McClelland and Rumelhart demonstrated this with a working model, along with accounting for many other results in the literature.

Question 27

Localist representations

Answer 27

Refers to a one-to-one representation (interactive activation model, one node reflects one representation)

Question 28

Parallel representations

Answer 28

Reflects many nodes reflecting a single representation

Question 29

Seidenberg and McClelland Model

Answer 29

Learns to map orthography onto phonology • Accounts for many findings in the literature, e.g., the slowdown in pronouncing PINT compared to SILO • Is an important example of how models can learn statistical relationships in the environment.

Question 30

Parallel distributed processing models

Answer 30

Applied to many domains: language, attention, development - surface level similarity to neural patterns - complex behavior rom simple parallel processing units - learning is a major advantage

Question 31

Bottom up speech perception

Answer 31

the first step in comprehending spoken language is to identify the words being spoken, performed in multiple stages: 1. Features are detected (voiced, bilabial, plosive, etc) 2. Phonemes are detected (/b/, /e/, /t/, /e/, /r/, ) 3. Phonemes are combined into syllables (/be/ /ter/) 4. Syllables are combined into words (“better”) 5. Word meaning retrieved from memory

Question 32

Coarticulation=

Answer 32

consecutive speech sounds blend into each other due to mechanical constraints on articulators Speakers differ: pitch affected by age, sex, different dialects, talking speeds etc.

Question 33

Cohort Model

Answer 33

All candidates considered in parallel • Candidates eliminated as more evidence becomes available in the speech input • Uniqueness point occurs when only one candidate remains • Context can constrain uniqueness point

Question 34

McClelland and Elian Trace Model

Answer 34

Similar to McClelland and Rumelhart’s interactive activation model but applied to speech recognition Connections between levels are bi-directional and excitatory top-down effects Connections within levels are inhibitory producing competition between alternatives

Question 35

Effect of semantic context (place and pickett- 1964)

Answer 35

Recorded several conversations. – Subjects in their experiment had to identify the words in the conversation. – When words were spliced out of the conversation and then presented auditorily, subjects identified the correct word only 47% of the time. – Suggests that the clarity of individual words within speech is an illusion.

Question 36

Shadowing Studies (Cherry)

Answer 36

Dichotic listening ad the right ear advantage (multiplexing in broadbent's model,) task switching

Question 37

Broadbent's early selection model

Answer 37

Input--> sensory store--> selective filter--> (bottleneck) higher level processing--> working memory Model had some problems

Question 38

Triesman's filter attenuation (early selection model

Answer 38

Cocktail party lowered activation model

Question 39

Dutch Norman late selection model

Answer 39

Sensory inputs relates to processing, causing selection- what attention is focused on also feeds back into the selection model in terms of pertinence

Question 40

Posner Exogenous Cueing paradigm

Answer 40

Interstimulus interval, where's waldo, boxes Posner’s work suggest that where the eyes are may be dissociated from where attention is, since the eyes can remain at fixation and one still finds the cueing effects.

Question 41

Balint's syndrome

Answer 41

Appears to be a deficit in attention to multiple objects in vision • inability to perceive the visual field as a whole (simultanagnosia) • difficulty in fixating the eyes (oculomotor apraxia) • inability to move the hand to a specific object by using vision (optic ataxia)

Question 42

Capacity vs selection models of attention (Kahneman- 1973)

Answer 42

Appears to be a deficit in attention to multiple objects in vision • inability to perceive the visual field as a whole (simultanagnosia) • difficulty in fixating the eyes (oculomotor apraxia) • inability to move the hand to a specific object by using vision (optic ataxia)

Question 43

Posner and Snyder's theoretical framework

Answer 43

Automatic spreading activation -fast acting, independent of expectancies, produces facilitation Limited capacity attention - relatively slow, depends on expectancies, produces both facilitation and inhibition

Question 44

Neely's manipulations

Answer 44

Stimulus Onset Asynchrony taps speed • Interval between onset of prime and onset of target • Manipulated subjects expectancies, by instructions • Nonshift category Bird- “think of types of birds” • Shift category Body– “think of building parts” • Measure facilitation and inhibition with the inclusion of a neutral primes “xxxxx”

Question 45

Balota threshold study

Answer 45

Priming effects for threshold primes and suprathreshold primes was about 30 ms. • Context Memory effects • Lexical Decision Recognition Test • Inch Yard Inch Yard Fence Yard Threshold 0% better in same context Suprathreshold 31% better in same context

Question 46

Kanne's study of parietal neglect

Answer 46

Related primes are faster than unrelated primes even in neglected visual field, (only eating half the plate study)

Question 47

Automaticity and Fodor's modularity of the mind

Answer 47

Automaticity suggests there are dedicated self encapsulated modules. • Neely, Balota, and Kanne results are consistent with a self- encapsulated lexical module, independent of attention • Historically, important for motivating studies to identify modules of the brain, everything is not simply interconnected.

Question 48

Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010)

Answer 48

Via experience sampling procedures, people report they are not thinking about what they are currently doing about 45% of the time

Question 49

Reading, reichle et al. (2010)

Answer 49

Via experience sampling procedures, people report they are not thinking about what they are currently doing about 45% of the tim

Question 50

Sustained attention to respond task (schooler et al)

Answer 50

Simple boring go-nogo task, i.e., press a button for digits 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9, withhold keypress on 6 • Pressing a button on the digit 6 (a no-go error) may reflect mind wandering • Results indicate that trials before such errors and self reports of mind wandering are relatively fast due to rhythmic pressing of buttons

Question 51

Resting state connectivity

Answer 51

Areas of the brain are correlated in activation at relatively slow cycles, i.e., .1 hz • These correlated areas presumably reflect networks of activity. • There is evidence of anti-correlation across networks. • This suggests the brain is a network as opposed to simple focal points of activity, as is often assumed in imaging studies.

Question 52

Conclusions from Sterling default mode suppression with task onset biomarkers study

Answer 52

Default Mode Network activity is not suppressed during task onset for individuals who are healthy older adults. • Default Mode Network activity is slightly increased during task onset for individuals who have biomarkers consistent with Alzheimer’s Disease, but are not demented. • Could reflect the lack of tuning control systems/attention to task constraints.

Question 53

Iconic memory

Answer 53

Default Mode Network activity is not suppressed during task onset for individuals who are healthy older adults. • Default Mode Network activity is slightly increased during task onset for individuals who have biomarkers consistent with Alzheimer’s Disease, but are not demented. • Could reflect the lack of tuning control systems/attention to task constraints.

Question 54

Echoic memory

Answer 54

May be more important because sound necessarily unfolds across time • Stress and changes in pitch depend on representations of earlier precategorical stimuli.