Exam 1 Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
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The Different principles of biology
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Anatomy Cellular Anatomy Physiology Genetics Developmental biology
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Anatomy
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the study of different organs and structures
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cellular anatomy
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the study of cell organelles and structures
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genetics
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the study of how genes and evolution affect biological processes
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developmental biology
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the study of how an organism and its tissues are created during development
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Genetic manipulation
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selective breeding, transgenic manipulation (animals only)
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Neuropharmacology
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giving agonists or antagonists to brain chemicals (animals and humans)
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Electrical stimulation
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increases the activity of a brain region stimulating it electrically (animals and humans)
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Trauma studies
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damage to a brain region due to accidental injury (humans)
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The different types of biopsychological manipulations
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Genetic manipulations
neuropharmacology
electrical stimulation
trauma studies
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Peripheral nervous system
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components of the nervous system outside the skull spine
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Main components of the nervous system
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Nerves and ganglia
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Nerves
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enclosed, cable- like bundles that transmit electrical impulses to and from body structures and the brain
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Ganglia
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clusters of nerve cells bodies associated with nerves
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2 main branches of the peripheral nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
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nerves carrying sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS
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Cranial nerves
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carry info t o and from the brain and the head, neck and trunk
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Spinal nerves
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carry info to and from the CNS
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Autonomic nervous system
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special nerves that regulate activity of the internal organs and other involuntary activites
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Parasympathetic nervous system
In autonomic nervous system
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regulates day to day functions like digestion
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Sympathetic nervous system
in autonomic nervous system
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regulates “fight or flight” response to threats and stressors
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Central Nervous system
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components of the nervous system located in the skull and spine (Brain and spinal cord)
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spinal cord
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functions primarily in transmission of signals to and from the brain and the rest of the body
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Dorsal roots
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bring sensory info the the CNS from the body AFFERENT
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ventral roots
take motor commands from CNS to muscles EFFERENT
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Major landmarks of the brain
- two hemispheres are separated by the LONGITUDINAL FISSURE
| - Two hemispheres are connected by the CORPUS CALLOSUM which allows communication between them
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The Cells of the Brain are Organized into Different Structures
cortex
| nuclei
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Cortex
layers of nerve cells or neurons on the outer part of the brain
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nuclei
clusters of nerve cells or neurons with the brain
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Folds of the Cortex
Gyri (singular gyrus)
| Sulci (singular sulcus)
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Gyri
bulges or ridges on the brain's surface
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Sulci
grooves or indentations in the brain's surface
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The Hemispheres are Both are Both
Symmetrical
Asmmetrcial
Contralateral
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Symmetrical
structures or functions found in both hemispheres of the brain (sensory areas and motor areas)
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asymmetrical
structures or functions found in one hemisphere only language and spatial navitageion areas are usually located in opposite hemispheres
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contralateral
information is sent and recived to and from the opposite side of the body
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Hindbrain
regulates function that are basic and critical to life
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midbrain
movement, reward, arousal
| auditory and visual reflexes
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Forebrain
many of the functions of the forebrain are what make us uniuqely human conscious thought memory and emotion
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Meninges
membranes surrounding and protecting and protecting the brain
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What ar the layers of the meninges
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Dura mater (Tough outer layer)
Arachnoid membrane (spiderweb- like middle layer)
Pia mater (adheres to the brain and spinal cord)
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Disease associated with Meninges
Meningitis - inflammation of the protective membranes surrounding the brain
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Symptoms of meningitis
headache, neck stiffness, fever
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Ventricles
large fluid filled chambers in the brain
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Hydrocephalus
blockage of the drainage of CSF through the brain, causing the ventricles to swell
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Symptoms of hydrocephalus
obvious and excessive head size and "sundowning"
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Cerebral vasuclature
blood vessels supplying brain with oxygen and nutrients
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stroke
decrease in blood supply providing oxygen to a part of the brain that results of death of neurons downstream of the blockage
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cell
the smallest unit of life
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What does a cell consist of ?
cell membrane that surrounds and separates the queous interior called the cytoplasms from the extracellular fluid surrounding the cells
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2 main types of cells
neurons and glial cells
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neurons
main functional cells of the nervous system, electrically active cells which communicate with one another
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glial cells
the "support staff" of the nervous system, provide support, protection and other things
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What are the structures found on a typical neurons
dendrites
cell body or soma
axon
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Dendrites
branching processes coming off cell body
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cell body or soma
where nucleus and most organelles are found
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axon
sends information on to the next neurons
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3 functional kinds of neurons
motor neurons
sensory neurons
interneurons
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motor neurons
neurons that send signals to the muscles and other body structures from the CNS
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sensory neurons
neurons receiving sensory information and relaying it to the CNS
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interneurons
neurons that link between two other neurons
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3 structural kinds of neruons
Unipolar
bipolar
multipolar
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unipolar
both the axon and main dendrite are part of the same process
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bipolar
the axon and the dendrite come off opposite sides of the cell body
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multipolar
neurons with multiple dendrites
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Most neurons in the brain are
multipolar
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cell proliferation
the process by which one cell grows and replicates
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Cell differentiation
the process by which neurons tak eon their complex adult form by turning on specific genes
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the four main type of glial cells
astrocytes
oligodendrocytes
microglia
ependymal cells
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astrocytes
stare shaped cells that rpovide structural and nurtitive support to neurons
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oligodendrocytes and schwann cells
insulate neuronal axons and improve electrical transmission along them
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microglia
immune like cells in the CNS that remove damaged neurons
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ependymal cells
produce cerebrospinal fluid
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where are oligodendrocytes are found
in the central nervous system
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Where are schwann cells found
in the peripheral nervous system
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Multiple sclerosis
destruction of the myelin sheath by immune cells, destruction of myelin results in axonal conduction. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, paralysis, vision problems, cognitive defect
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microglia
phagocytose or eat invading microorganisms such as bacteria and damaged or dead neurons. Go from branching (non-activated) to ameboid to phagocytic macrophage. If chronically activated can start to malfucntion and produce and secrete substances that can cause chronic pain and neuronal death
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Ependymal cells and Hydrocephalus
produce cerebrospinal fluid in the choroid plexus. Can't turn of CSF production so if CSF drainage is blocked can result in
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Tumor
a large mass of abnormally proliferating cells
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Primary tumors
Brain tumors are usually glial because neurons are post- mitotic
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Secondary tumors
tumor cells can also form elsewhere in the body and invade the brain
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Ion
an atom or molecule in which total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons
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An Ion can be positively and negatively charged when
when the dnumber of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons is equal an atom is not charged and is not an ion
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pumps
pumps are special proteins found in the cell membrane. They move ions across membranes against their concentration gradient, which requires energy. Energy for this is provided by the breakdown of hdrolysis of ATP to ADP and PI
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Ion channels
ion channels are special proteins found in the cell membrane, Ions move down their concentration gradient and no energy is required
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The Non gated K+ and Na+ Ion channels
known as non gated ion channels because they are always open . They allow K+ to move out of the cell down the concentration gradient .
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At rest there are many more ____channels open than ___
K+, NA+
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resting membrane potential
the charge or voltage difference at rest across the plasma membrane
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Na+/K+ pump
moves 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in net loss of positive charge inside neuron
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non-gated K+ channel
at rest more non gated open K+ channels than Na channels so more Na+ charge flows out of a neuron than in
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Voltage gated Ion Channels
opened by changes in voltage or charge inside the cell, allow ions to move down their concentration gradient, because ion s move down their concentration gradient, no energy is required are specific for specific ions
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States of voltage gated Ions
Closed
Open or activated
inactivated
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open or activated
channel and inactivating segment are both open and lots can move through
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inactivated
channel is opened is or closed but inactivating segment has swung shut and no Na+ can move through
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K+ voltage gated Ion channel
states- closed and open / activated
| Key points - it opens in response to large increases in positive charge inside the cell,i
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depolarization
when positive ions flow into the cell or negative ions flow out of the cell and it becomes les negative inside compared to outside the cell
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hyperpolarization
when positive ions flow out of the cell or negative ions flow into the cell and it becomes more negative inside compared to outside the cell
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Action potential step one
At rest, the Na+/K+ pump and the resting K+ channel
| produce a net negative charge inside the cell compared to outside
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action potential step two
depolarization opens voltage gated Na+ channels
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Action potential step 3
After a delay, voltage-gated K+ channels open. At the same time, the voltage gated Na+ channels close and inactivate; membrane repolarizes
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Action potential step 4
inactivation of the Na+ channels and opening in voltage-gated K+ channels results in “overshoot”of resting membrane potential, causing hyperpolarization
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Action potential step 5
closed Na+ channels de-inactivate, voltage-gated K+ channel closes, Na+/K+ pumps return Na+ and K+ gradients to normal, membrane potential returns to normal
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action potential
Influx of Na+ from AP flows into adjacent membrane area a. This new patch of membrane depolarizes, forms action potential, which depolarizes the next patch of membrane, opening its Na+ channels, and so forth. Previous patch can’t reform action potential because it is refractory due to closing and inactivation of Na+ channels during hyperpolarization. This means action potential moves only in one direction, down axon toward the synapse
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saltatory conduction
Myelin sheath surrounds axon except bare patches called Nodes of Ranvier. Action potential “jumps” from node to node because myelin insulates the axon, allowing less ion flow out across membrane. This “jumping” speeds the rate of action potential propagation down the axon
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The steps involved in neurotransmitter release and know the trigger for vesicle fusion
1.Action potential travels down to axon terminal
2.Action potential opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
3.Opening of Ca2+ channels allows Ca2+ to flow into the cell down its conc. gradient
4. Ca2+ influx causes fusion of neurotransmitter vesicles with the membrane or synthesis of gas neurotransmitters
Fusion of vesicles dumps neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
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the main classes of neurotransmitters
dopaminergic
nodregenic
sertongeric
cholingeric `
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dopminergic
uses dopamine with the brain-- regulated reward and movement
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noradernergic
uses norepinephrine within the brain--regulates arousal and attention
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sertonergic
uses serotonin within the brain-- regulates mood and compulsions
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chilnergic
uses acetylchonin within the brain -- regulates arousal and attention
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small molecule
amino acids or synthesized from them or other metabolites
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peptide
long chains of amino acids linked together to form a peptide or protein endorphins
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transmitter gases
gasses synthesized from atoms
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Ionotropic
binding of NT directly opens an ion channel in the receptor and allows ions to flow into the cell
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metabotropic
binding of NT does not directly open an ion channel in the receptor but instead indirectly opens an ion channel by activating other intracellular proteins
