Exam 1 Flashcards
(110 cards)
0
Q
Elaborate on deviance.
A
Deviance from:
Behavior, thoughts, and emotions that differ markedly from a society’s ideas about proper functioning
From social norms (statistical v moral norms)
-stated and unstated rules for proper conduct
-examples would be paraphilias, transvestism
The judgement of abnormality vary from society to society as norms grow from a particular culture:
They also depend on specific circumstances
-example is deployment to combat zone
1
Q
What are the four D’s of abnormality?
A
Deviance: different, extreme, and unusual (statistical v moral deviance)
Distress: unpleasant and upsetting to the person
Dysfunction: interfering with persons ability to conduct daily activities in a constructive way.
Danger: posing risk of harm (to others or self)
2
Q
Elaborate on distress.
A
Distress:
According to many clinical theorist, behavior, ideas, or emotions usually have to cause distress before they can be labeled abnormal
-this is nit always the case (narcissistic personality disorder)
-distress to whom? Self or others?
3
Q
Elaborate on dysfunction.
A
Abnormal behavior tends to be dysfunctional if it interferes with daily functioning
- adaption to specific context (changing self to adjust to environment or vice versa)
- lieben, arbeiten, and spielen (love, work, and play)
4
Q
Elaborate on danger.
A
Abnormal behavior may become dangerous to oneself or others
- behavior may be consistently careless, hostile, or confused
- anti social personality disorder(exploitation of others, harmful to society?
5
Q
What is the exclusive nature of abnormality?
A
When a society selects general criteria for defining abnormality and then uses those criteria to judge particular cases.
6
Q
What are the critical issues about the exclusive nature of abnormality?
A
Criteria are vague, subjective, and inconsistent
Unclear who decides what is normal or not
Disagreement about whether deviant behavior reflects an illness or weakness of character or faulty learning
7
Q
How have times changed?
A
Some behaviors previously considered psychopathological in earlier versions of the DSM are no longer consider (example, homosexuality)
Some behaviors omitted or excluded from the DSM, like hoarding disorder and caffeine use disorder.
Some clinical theorist argue that behavioral disorders should include interpersonal dysfunctions, like couple/partner distress and parent child distress
8
Q
How common are disorders?
A
30% of adults and 19% of children and adolescents in the U.S. Display serious psychological disturbances and are in need of clinical treatment.
In addition, most people have difficulty coping at various times in their life and can benefit from treatment
9
Q
What is the goal of treatment?
A
The goal of psychological treatment is to reduce or eliminate symptoms. (Deviant behaviors or emotional distress)
10
Q
What are the three common features of treatment?
A
An individual suffering and seeking relief
A trained professional
Consultation between the professional and the individual in distress or significant others in that persons environment
11
Q
How was abnormality viewed and treated in the past?
A
Ancient societies probably regarded abnormal behavior as the work of evil spirits(although some disorders were viewed as divine inspiration)
The treatment for severe abnormality was to force the demons from the body (example is trephination)
12
Q
What were the Greek and Roman views and treatments?
A
500BC- 500AD
Philosophers and physicians offered different explanations and treatments for abnormal behaviors
Hippocrates believed and taught that illness had natural causes
- he looked to an unbalance of the four liquids or humors (excess black bile, =melancholia
- his suggested treatments attempted to rebalance
13
Q
Europe in the Middle Ages: Demonology returns
A
500-1350 AD
The church rejected scientific forms of investigation, and it controlled all education
-religious beliefs came to dominate all aspects of life
-seen as conflict between good and evil
-some of the earlier demonological treatments reemerged.
-exorcism(maybe a replacement for trephination)
At the close of the Middle Ages, demonology and its methods began to lose favor again
14
Q
The Renaissance and the rise of Asylums
A
1400-1700 AD
Demonological views of abnormality continued to decline
German physician Johanne Weyner believed the mind was susceptible to sickness like the body
THe care of people with mental disorders continued to improve in this atmosphere
15
Q
What is relevant about the rise of asylums?
A
Their primary purpose was to care for the mentally ill
- the intention was good care
- located in rural settings
- became virtual prisons because of overcrowding
16
Q
What happened in the nineteenth century with Reform and Moral treatment?
A
As 1800 approached, treatment of people with mental disorders began to improve
- pinel(France) and tuke(England) advocated moral treatment. (Which is care that emphasizes moral guidance and humane and respectful techniques
- In the U.S. Each state was responsible for developing effective public mental hospitals , or state hospitals, which all offered ,moral treatment.
Leaders included Benjamin Rush and Dororthea Dix
17
Q
What happened by end of the nineteenth century with Moral treatment and Reform?
A
By the end, several factors led to reversal of moral treatment movement
- money and staff shortages
- declining recovery rates
- over crowding
- re-emergence of of prejudice toward mental illness
By the early 20th century, long term hospitalization became the rule once again.
18
Q
What are the early 20the century dual perspectives?
A
Somatic (physical) perspective:
Physical factors cause mental disorders
Psychological (mental) perspective:
Psychological problems lead to abnormal behavior
Psychoanalysis(unconscious psychological processes are the root of psychopathology and dysfunction
19
Q
What are the current trends in treatment?
A
1950, researchers discover a number of new psychotropic drugs
- anti psychotic drugs (nueroleptics, major tranquilizers)
- anti depressant drugs
- anti anxiety drugs (anxiolytics, minor tranquilizers)
These discovers led to deinstitutionalization and a rise in outpatient care (this change in care was not with out problems)
20
Q
How are people with severe disturbances cared for?
A
Outpatient care is the primary care
-when patients need institutionalization, they’re usually given short term hospitalization , out patient psychotherapy , and meds in community settings
- few community programs available in US. ; 40-60% of those with severe disturbances receive treatment of any kind
- many people with mental illness (and limited resources) end up in jail for minor offenses
21
Q
How are people with less severe disturbances treated?
A
1 in 6 adults receive treatment for psychological disorders in a year , the majority for fewer than 5 sessions
Growing emphasis on evidence based treatments for specific kinds of psychological problems ( exposure therapy for anxiety disorders and interpersonal therapy for depression)
22
Q
What is the emphasis on preventing mental disorders and promoting mental health?
A
The community mental health approach has given rise to the prevention movement
-today’s programs are trying to: (correct social conditions that underlie psychological problems, and help individuals at risk for developing disorders)
-prevention programs have been further energized by the growing interest in positive psychology (which is the enhancement of positive feelings, traits, and abilities)
23
Q
What are the benefits and limitations of mental health insurance?
A
75% of all privately insured ppl in the US are enrolled in managed care programs
- reimbursements for mental disorders tend to be lower than those for medical disorders
- not all disorders are covered
- not all persons are insured
24
What are the developments of the last few decades?
Contd changes in conceptualization of emotional and behavioral disorders
Development of psychotropic meds
Deinstitutionalization
-outpatient care is the primary care
Private psychotherapy and managed care
Increased emphasis on evidence based treatments
25
Why do we need research in abnormal psychology?
Theories and treatment that seem reasonable and effective in individual instances may prove to be ineffective , or even harmful when widely applied
Only by fully testing a theory or technique on representative groups of individuals can clinicians evaluate the accuracy, effectiveness, and safety of their ideas and techniques
26
What do clinical researchers do?
Try to understand universal principles of abnormal psychological functioning
- rely on scientific method to pinpoint relationships between variables
- use methods of investigation to form and test hypotheses and draw broad conclusions
27
What are challenges for clinical researchers?
Measuring unconscious motives
Assessing private thoughts
Monitoring mood changes
Taking the context and other factors into account
-they must also take into account different cultural backgrounds, races, and genders, of people they study
28
What are the methods of investigation?
Clinical case study
Correlational method
Experimental method
Alternative experimental designs
- Quasi experimental method
- analogue experiment
- single subject design
29
Elaborate on clinical case studies.
It provides a detailed, interpretative description of a persons life and psychological problems
- can be a new source of ideas about behavior (Generative and Qualitative).
- may offer tentative support for a theory
- may challenge a theory's assumptions
- may show the value of new therapeutic techniques
- may offer opportunities to study unusual problems
30
What are the limitations of clinical studies?
- reported by biased observers
- relies on subjective evidence (low internal validity)
- little bias for generalization (low external validity)
31
What is the correlation method?
The degree which events or characteristics vary with each other (the correlational method is a research procedure used to determine the co-relationship between variables)
The people chosen for a study are its subjects or participants, called a sample. (The sample must be representative of the larger population, measure of association-A is associated with B)
32
(Correlational Research) What are the two forms of correlational study?
Epidemiological Study: reveal the incidence and prevalence of a disorder in particular population
- incidence=number of new cases that emerge in a given period
- prevalence=total number of cases in a given period
Longitudinal study: researchers observe the same individuals on many occasions over a long period
33
How can you describe a correlation?
The data can be graphed and "a line of best fit" can be drawn.
- positive correlation( slope is upward and to the right, variables change in the same directions)
- negative correlations( downward slope! Variables change in the opposite direction)
- Unrelated (no slope! No consistent relationship)
Range from -1 to +1, there are high and low values
34
What is another way to describe a correlation?
Direction and magnitude (strength) of a correlation are often calculated numerically.
- It is called the correlation coefficient "r" and can vary from perfect positive (+1) to perfect negative (-1).
- The plus or negative indicates direction
- The number indicates magnitude
Most correlations found in psychological research fall short from of perfect correlations.
35
When can correlations be trusted?
Based in statistical analysis of probability
- statistical significance: means that the finding is unlikely to have occurred by chance (the probability that findings are due to chance are less than 5%, it is statistically significant and reflect a larger population)
- generally , confidence inc with the size of the sample and the magnitude of the correlation.
36
What are the strengths and limitations of the correlational method?
Advantages:
High external validity (can generalize findings)
Difficulties;
Lack internal validity( realists describe but don't explain relationship, doesn't say anything about causation)
Statistical evidence: is not equal to "meaningfulness"
-effect size = r squared = % of explained variance
37
What is the experimental method?
Researchers try to eliminate all confounds( variables other than the independent variable that may also be affecting the dependent variable
Three features included in experiments to guard against confounds
- control group
- random assignment
- blind design
38
What is a blind design?
A final confound problem in bias.
-to avoid bias by the participant, experimenters do a blind design, participants are kept from knowing which assigned group (experimental or control) they are in--(one strategy is providing a placebo, something that stimulates real therapy but has none of the key ingredients)
-to avoid bias by the experimenter, experimenters employ a double blind design when the experimenters and participants are kept from knowing which condition of the study participants are in--(often used in medication trials)
39
What is the control group?
Participants that aren't exposed to the independent variable, but whose experience is similar to that of the experimental group (by comparing the two groups , researchers can better determine the effect of the independent variable)
Rules of statistical significance are applied (clinicians can also evaluate clinical significance)
40
What is random assignment?
Researchers have to watch out for differences in the makeup of the experimental and control groups
-so they use random assignment, any selection procedure that ensures that every participant in the experiment is as likely to be placed in one group as another (ex, coin flip, picking names out of a hat)
41
Why study models of abnormality?
They spell out basic assumptions about the development, maintenance, and treatment of psychopathy.
- models influence what investigators observe the questions they ask, the info they seek, and how they interpret this info
- they guide investigators in examine the question: what causes this disorder?
42
What are the levels of causation or the four P's of causation?
Primary: causes that lead directly and inevitably in some condition, usually biological. (Almost always biological)
Predisposing: causes that pave the way for some condition to develop by inc vulnerability, can be biological or psychosocial. (Higher risk for children that are considered weird)
Precipitating: causes that trigger the onset in an individual already predisposed or susceptible. (Being vulnerable in certain situations)
Perpetuating: causes that maintain a behavior ---through negative or positive reinforcement
43
What is the biological model?
When emotional and behavioral disorders are caused by malfunctioning in the central nervous system (primarily) or peripheral nervous system (secondarily)
Multiple factors may cause dysfunction at any level of the nervous system
44
How do biological theorist explain abnormal behavior?
Brain anatomy and location of dysfunction
Brain chemistry (neurotransmitters)
Endocrine system (hormones)
Genetics (inheritance)
Toxic exposure (lead, psychoactive drugs)
45
What is the organization of the nervous system, brain structure, and functions?
Lecture 4, red circle
46
What are examples of CNS damage?
Trauma:
- penetrating head wound
- closed head injury
Stroke:
-location of stroke determines functions affected
(Loss of speech- expressive v receptive, loss of movement- contra lateral control)
47
What are disorders at subcortial levels?
Clinical researchers have discovered connections between certain psychological disorders and problems in specific brain areas
Ex:
- huntingtons disease and basal ganglia cortex
- Parkinson's disease and cerebellar dysfunction
- attention deficit disorder and ARAS, (ascending reticular activating system)
48
What are the basics of nuerochemistry?
Lecture 3
49
What does serotonin deal with?
Well being, happiness, mood ,memory, appetite hunger
50
What does dopamine deal with?
Motor control, motivation,arousal, cognition, reward/pleasure, . A deficiency can lead to a diminished conscience, poor judgment, impulsivitym short attention span, disorganization, trouble learning from experience, confusion, poor time management and lack of empathy
51
What are the goals of psychotropic medication?
Increases availability of desired neurotransmitter
- mimic neurotransmitter synthetically (promotes production)
- block re-uptake of transmitter at synaptic cleft (Example, SSRI, for depression)
- block enzyme that metabolize transmitter
Decreases transmission of undesired or excessive neurotransmitter
- block transmission of neurotransmitter (eg, block receptors in dopamine pathways)
- promote re uptake transmitters
- promote enzymes that metabolize neurotransmitter
52
What are endocrine related disorders?
Endocrine system and abnormal behavior
- mental disorders sometimes related to abnormal chemical activity in the endocrine system
- endocrine glands release hormones
- abnormal hormonal secretions have been linked to psychological disorders (ex, cortisol releases are related to anxiety and mood disorders )
53
What are genetic related disorders?
Abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are sometime the result of genetic inheritance
- chromosomes in body cells have numerous genes that control the characteristic and traits a person inherits
- studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood disorders, schizophrenia and others.
Genes combine to produce our actions and reactions
54
What is relevant about exposure to toxins?
Abnormal behaviors (cognitions, affect behavior) can also result from exposure to toxic substances
- lead, mental retardation
- alcohol and illicit substances, cognitions; motor control (acute/temporary, and chronic/enduring affects)
- viral infections, HIV etc.
55
What are biological treatment?
Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment
56
What are the three biological treatments
Drug therapy
Electroconclusive therapy or ECT
Psychosurgery
57
What are the strengths and weakness of the bio model?
Strengths:
- respect in the field
- produces valuable new info
- treatment brings relief
Weakness:
- can limit instead of enhance understanding(treats symptoms not causes)
- treatment can produce negative effects
- not applicable to many disorders
58
What is the psychodynamic model?
- most famous
- based on the belief that a persons behavior (normal or not) is determined by underlying dynamic(interacting) psychological forces of which they aren't aware(abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among forces)
- father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy (Frued, a numerologist familiar with brain and nervous system)
59
How did Freud explain normal and abnormal function?
Three parts of personality in conflict
1. Id, guided by the Pleasure Principle
- instincts, drives, impulses
2. Ego. Guided by the Reality Principle
- seeks gratification, but guides us to know when can and can't express our wishes
- ego defense mechanisms, protect us from anxiety (denial, repression, projection, rationalization)
3. Superego, guided by the Morality principle
- conscience; unconsciously internalized from our environment
60
What is the psychodynamic view of conflict?
Premise: psychological disorders result from internal/mental conflicts between opposing wishes, needs, fantasies, fears
- reality anxiety: based on objective conflict between needs or drives and external constraints
- neurotic anxiety: based on conflicts between needs or drives and internal constraints (conscience), bad for you.
Basic view of human nature is deterministic and negative
61
What is the scientific legacy of Frued?
Majority of thoughts, feelings, and motives are unconscious
Mental process (feelings, motivations) are often conflicting and lead to compromised behavior
Childhood experiences play an important role in personality development in adult life
Mental representations of oneself and others influence relationships and symptomatic interactions
Development requires regulating sexual and aggressive feelings and moving from immature, dependent role to mature independent one
62
Are stages of development psychodynamic or psychosocial?
Freud thinks sexual
Erik thinks social
63
What are psychodynamic therapies?
Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to modern psychodynamic therapies
All seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts
Therapist act as a subtle guide
Uncovering and understanding unconscious feelings, thoughts, motives allow conscious , deliberate choices / decisions about how to resolve or manage them
64
What techniques do psychodynamic therapies use?
Free association
Emphasis on talking
Therapist interpretation of dreams, fantasies, and interpersonal interactions
Insight, catharis (relief) and working through (processing, understanding ,integrating meaning)
65
What are the strengths/weaknesses of psychodynamic model?
Weakness: unsupported ideas difficult to research
- non observable
- inaccessible to human subject (conscious)
- therapy longer than other approaches
Strength:
- first to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment
- abnormal functioning rooted in the same process as normal functioning
- first to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment --monumental impact on field
66
What is the humanistic-existential model?
This is a combination model
humanist view
-emphasis on ppl as friendly, cooperative, and constructive, focus on the drive to self actualize through honest recognition of strengths and weaknesses
Existential view
-emphasis On self determination, choices and individual responsibility, focus on authenticity
67
Elaborate on humanistic theory and therapy.
Believes in basic human need for unconditional positive regard
-if received , leads to unconditional self regard
- if not, leads to conditions of worth
(Incapable of self actualization bc of distortion, don't know what they really need or want)
Carl Rogers client centered therapy
- therapist create supportive climate(unconditional positive regard, accurate empathy, genuineness)
- modest research support, and considerable impact on clinical practice
68
Elaborate on existential theory and therapy.
Belief that psychological dysfunction is caused by self deception; ppl hide from life's responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives
In therapy, ppl are encouraged to accept personal responsibility for their problems
- goals more important than technique
- great emphasis on client-therapist relationship
69
What are the strengths and weakness of humanistic-existential model?
Strengths:
- tap into domains missing from other theories
- emphasize the individual
- emphasize health
Weaknesses:
- focus in abstract issues(difficult to research)
- weakened by disapproval of scientific research
Basic view of human nature is optimistic and nondeterministic
70
What is the behavioral model?
Like psychodynamic theorist, behavioral theorist believe that our actions are determined by our experiences in life
Concentrates on behaviors and environmental factors not on mental processes
Explanations of psychopathology and treatments based on principles of learning
Basic view of human nature is deterministic and neutral
71
What are the basic assumptions of the behavioral model?
Emotional and behavioral disorders result from:
- learning of maladaptive behaviors
- failure to learn/acquire adaptive behaviors
- overwhelming of behavioral repertoire by excessive stress
72
Where did the behavioral model began?
In labs where conditioning studies were conducted
Forms of learning:
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- modeling
All may produce normal or abnormal behavior
73
What is classical conditioning?
-Learning by temporal association (also referred to as associative learning or Pavlovian learning)
Pav Learning: when two events repeatedly occur close together in time they become associated in a persons experience. Eventually the person responds to both experiences the same way
- explains many families behaviors (normal and abnormal)
- useful in explaining acquired fears and anxieties
74
What is operant conditions?
Learning by consequences. (Reward or punishment)--also referred to as instrumental or Skinnerian learning
-2ways to increase behavior
Positive: follow behavior by enforcing positive (pleasurable/desired) outcome
Negative: follow behavior by removing negative (aversive/undesired) condition
-2ways to decrease behavior
Punishment: follow by administering negative ("") outcome
Extinction: follow behavior by removing ("") condition
75
What is the associated process?
All learning process are subject to:
-generalization: behavioral response to stimulus conditions that are similar to but broader than the original condition
-discrimination: selective behavioral response to specific conditions that are similar but narrower than the original condition
Learning may occur by multiple processes simultaneously- eg, in escape and avoidance situations
76
What is Escape and Avoidance Learning?
Conclusion: Anxiety develops as a conditioned response, and then serves as a drive that motivates escape and avoidance behavior.
A model for many maladaptive, persistent behaviors. Avoidance behaviors are very difficult to extinguish
(fear of response has been classicallly conditioned. Anxiety responses are thought of as classical conditions. Avoidance behaviors are difficult)
77
What is important about Modeling and Imitation
Much of human behavior is acquired through “observational” learning
- Adaptive behaviors(Patience, generosity, communication)
- Maladaptive behaviors(Aggression, prejudice)
- Important distinction between: Behavioral acquisition/repertoire versus enactment
78
What are Behavioral Therapies
They Aim to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones
```
Therapist is “teacher” or “coach (eg, systematic desensitization for phobia)
-Step-by-step procedure
Learn relaxation skills
Construct a fear hierarchy
Confront feared situations
```
79
What are the strengths and weakness of the Behavioral Model?
Strengths:
- Precision and objectivity
- Can be tested in the laboratory
- Significant research support for behavioral therapies
Weaknesses:
- Not all disorders are acquired through learning
- Behavior therapy is limited
- Excludes subjective experience, complex phenomena
- Fails to attend to self-direction
80
What is Cognitive Model?
This model proposes that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking at cognitive processes – the “center” of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions
Abnormal functioning can result from several kinds of cognitive problems:
-Faulty assumptions and attitudes
-Illogical thinking processes
Example: overgeneralization
81
What are the basic premises of the cognitive model?
Behavior flows directly from cognitive processes in the absence of external stimuli
O → R (organismic / cognitive process → response)
Cognitive processes mediate (and moderate) the effects of external stimuli on behavior
S → O → R ( stimulus → organismic / cognitive process → response)
These processes are not directly observable, but must be inferred by variations in behavior under controlled (manipulated) conditions
S → O → R → C (consequence) reflects entire chain
82
What are the core cognitive processes?
Information processing
- Attention (selective attention – as in depression)
- Encoding (interpretation and labeling of events)
- Memory (selective retention or retrieval of information)
Attributions
-Explanations / models for events or interactions
Beliefs and Expectancies
-Assumptions (about what is) and standards (about what should be)
Cognitive distortions
-Overgeneralization, magnification, selective abstraction (generalizing from unrepresentative events)
How you interpret things have a huge effect
83
What cognitive therapies?
Helps people to overcome their problems by developing new ways of thinking
Therapists guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives
84
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive model?
Strengths:
- Very broad appeal
- Clinically useful and effective
- Focuses on a uniquely human process
- Theories lend themselves to research
- Therapies effective in treating several disorders
Weaknesses:
- Precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be -determined
- Like other “mentalist” theories, based to some extent on inferences regarding nonobservable phenomena
85
What are the Broader System Models?
Family-social models:
-Argue that abnormal functioning within a family leads to abnormal behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in an insane environment)
Sociocultural models:
- Argue that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual
- Address norms and roles in society
86
What are Family Social treatments?
This perspective has helped spur the growth of several treatment approaches, including:
- Group therapy
- Family therapy
- Couple therapy
- Community treatment (Includes prevention work)
87
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Broader Family and Social Models?
Strengths:
- Add greatly to the clinical understanding and treatment of abnormality(Increased awareness of clinical and social roles)
- Clinically successful in addressing broader cultural and family/social influences
Weaknesses:
- Research may be difficult to interpret(Correlation not equal to causation)
- Model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals
88
Elaborate on the Integration of the Models.
A growing number of clinicians favor explanations of abnormal behavior that consider more than one cause at a time
-These are sometimes called biopsychosocial theories
(Abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and cultural influences)
89
How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally?
Assessment is the process of collecting relevant information in an effort to reach a conclusion
Clinical assessment is used to determine:
- How and why a person is behaving abnormally
- How that person may be helped
- To evaluate treatment progress
90
Idiographic vs. Nomothetic
Idiographic assessment refers to reaching decisions or making predictions based on information that is unique to that individual
E.g., specific symptoms and complaints, and situational factors that elicit or maintain them
Nomothetic conclusions refer to decisions or predictions based on an individual’s membership in some particular group
E.g., depressed, chronic alcohol abuser, or recently divorced
91
What is the Behavioral Assessment
Emphasizes the idiographic approach
Attempts to identify specific:
S – Stimulus conditions that cue some target response
O – Organismic mediators (e.g., thoughts, feelings, values)
R – Responses targeted for change (increase or decrease)
C – Consequences that increase or decrease target response
Functional analysis:
-Emphasizes the function of specific factors as they relate to increasing/decreasing the target response
92
What is the Clinical Assessment: Basic Methods
The specific tools used in an assessment depend on the clinician’s theoretical orientation
Hundreds of clinical assessment tools have been developed and fall into three categories:
- Clinical interviews
- Tests
- Observations
93
What is Criteria for Evaluating Assessment Methods
To be useful, assessment tools must be:
-Standardized (to compare to specified group)
***To standardize a technique is to set up common steps to be followed whenever it is administered
One must standardize administration, scoring, and interpretation
-Have clear reliability and validity
These criteria apply to all methods: Interviews, tests, and observations
94
What is reliability?
Reliability refers to the consistency of an assessment measure
- A good tool will always yield the same results in the same situation
- Two main types:
* **Test–retest reliability – yields the same results every time it is given to the same people
* **Interrater reliability – different judges independently agree on how to score and interpret a particular tool
95
What is validity?
Validity refers to the accuracy of a tool’s results
- A good assessment tool must accurately measure what it is supposed to measure
- Three specific types:
* **Content validity – a tool must sample representatively from the construct it is intended to assess (e.g., breadth of diverse depressive symptoms)
* **Predictive validity – a tool accurately predicts future characteristics or behavior
* **Concurrent validity – a tool’s results agree with independent measures assessing similar characteristics or behavior
96
What are Clinical Interviews?
Face-to-face encounters:
-Used to collect detailed information – especially personal history, history of problem, current symptoms, why seeking treatment, goals
Allow interviewers to focus on whatever topics they consider most important
-Focus depends on theoretical orientation
-Can be:
***Structured (same format for everyone)
“On this 5-point rating scale, how depressed are you?”
***Unstructured (open-ended)
“Can you describe your depression?”
97
How do you Evaluating Clinical Interviews
Strengths:
-Provide considerable detailed information useful in an idiographic or behavioral assessment approach
Limitations:
- May lack validity or accuracy(Individuals may be intentionally misleading)
- Interviewers may be biased or inexperienced
- Interviews, particularly unstructured ones, may lack reliability
98
What are Clinical Tests?
Tests are devices for gathering information about a few aspects of a person’s psychological functioning, from which broader information can be inferred
Clinical tests generally fall into 6 categories:
- Projective personality tests
- Objective personality inventories
- Measures of specific disorders
- Psychophysiological measures
- Intelligence measures
- Other cognitive / neuropsychological measures
99
Elaborate on Projective Personality Tests.
Require that clients interpret vague and ambiguous stimuli or follow open-ended instruction
Mainly used by psychodynamic practitioners
Most popular:
- Rorschach Inkblot Test
- Thematic Apperception Test(Scoring / interpretation based on: Coherence and elaboration of the narrative.Thematic content reflecting basic personality styles or needs)
- Sentence completion tests
100
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Projective Personality Tests?
Provide considerable qualitative data
Have generally not been subjected to careful standardization, reliability, or validity procedures
101
Elaborate on Objective Personality Tests.
Personality inventories
- Designed to measure broad personality characteristics
- Focus on behaviors, beliefs, and feelings
- Usually based on self-reported responses
- Most widely used:
* ** Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
* ** Consists of more than 500 true/false statements regarding physical concerns, psychological symptoms, mood, and attitudes toward religion, sex, and social activities
102
What is the MMPI
```
Comprised of ten clinical scales:
Hypochondriasis
Depression
Conversion hysteria
Psychopathic deviate
Masculinity-femininity
Paranoia
Psychasthenia
Schizophrenia
Hypomania
Social introversion
```
Scores range from 0 to 120
Above 65 = indicates deviance / disorder
Graphed to create a “profile
103
What are the specific Specific Clinical Measures?
Response inventories that:
- Usually are based on self-reports
- Focus on one specific area of functioning
* **Affective inventories,(Example: Beck Depression Inventory)
* **Social skills inventories
* **Cognitive inventories
104
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Objective Measures of Personality and Specific Domains?
Have strong content validity
Not all have been subjected to careful standardization, reliability, or concurrent / predictive validity procedures
105
Elaborate on Psychophysiological Measures.
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Psychophysiological measures include:
- Skin electrical conductance
- Finger temperature
- Heart rate, blood pressure
- Penile blood volume
(measure of sexual arousal)
```
Strengths: Can be highly precise.
Weakness: May be only weakly
related to construct of interest
106
What are Neuropsychological Tests?
Neurological (directly measures) tests directly assess brain function by assessing brain structure and activity
-Examples: EEG, PET scans, CAT scans, MRI, fMRI
Neuropsychological (indirectly measure) tests indirectly assess brain function by assessing cognitive, perceptual, and motor functioning
-Example: Visual design copying tests
Clinicians often use a battery of tests
107
Strengths and weaknesses of Neuropsychological Tests?
Can be very accurate
At best, though, these tests are general screening devices
-Best when used in a battery
of tests, each targeting
a specific skill area
108
Elaborate on Intelligence Tests.
Designed to indirectly measure intellectual ability
Typically comprised of a series of tests assessing both verbal and nonverbal skills
General score is an intelligence quotient (IQ)
Strengths:
Tend to be highly standardized. Good reliability / validity.
Weaknesses:
Can be influenced by nonintelligence factors (e.g., motivation, anxiety, test-taking experience)
Tests may contain cultural biases in language or task
109
What do you know about Clinical Observations?
Systematic observations of behavior
Several kinds:
- Naturalistic (for example: In school, at home, in nursing homes – usually by expert or paraprofessional)
- Analog (for example: In a clinical setting or laboratory – as in recording couple communications)
- Self-monitoring (for example: diaries of mood, eating behavior, exercise, substance use)
Strengths: Particularly useful for idiographic analysis and behavioral assessment
Weaknesses: Can be unreliable and biased – dependent on observer.
