Exam #1 5/1/23 Module 2

Question 1

genotype

Answer 1

genetic code

Question 2

phenotype

Answer 2

an expression of genetic code in the individual

Question 3

chromosomes

Answer 3

46 total, 23 pairs
- one from each parent

Question 4

genes

Answer 4

segments of DNA on a chromosomes directly crossing over

Question 5

chromosomal anomaly

Answer 5

change to a fetus’ genetic material or DNA that alters the baby’s development before birth
ex. down syndrome

Question 6

alleles

Answer 6

homozygous - same allele from both parents
heterozygous - a different version of the gene from each parent

Question 7

polygenic

Answer 7

inheritance of complex character traits
ex. height, skin, hair and eye color, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer sickle cell anemia and arthritis

Question 8

dominant-recessive relationships

Answer 8

X-linked inheritance - found on the 23 chromosome pair that determines biological gender - androgens produced by the fetus

Question 9

dominant-recessive relationships: color blindness

Answer 9

red-green color blindness is more likely in males because it is X-linked so they only need the recessive gene from their mother on the X chromosome

Question 10

dominant-recessive relationships: hemophilia

Answer 10

blood clotting is also X-linked

Question 11

disease carriers

Answer 11

usually recessive - females tend to be carriers for these traits that males are more likely to have

Question 12

gene-environment interactions

Answer 12

different phenotypes based on the environment
ex. PKU - have to avoid phenylalanine because intake would cause irreversible brain damage; 5HHTP serotonin transporter genes - people who have the longer variance of the allele are less susceptible to anxiety/depression unless they have a troubled

Question 13

gene-environment correlations

Answer 13

active - seek particular activities
passive - parent structures environment based on their interests

Question 14

stages of prenatal development

Answer 14

zygote - first two weeks after conception
embryo - implantation through the 8th week, especially vulnerable where major structural abnormalities occur
fetus - 9th-38th weeks, physiological defects and minor structural abnormalities

Question 15

teratogens

Answer 15

an environmental agent that causes damage uring the prenatal phase
ex. Legal drugs - prescription and non-prescription
Illegal drugs
Tobacco
Alcohol
Radiation
Environmental pollution
Maternal disease - 5th disease

Question 16

factor affecting susceptibility

Answer 16

gestational age - sensitive periods
dose-response relation
heredity
other negative influences

Question 17

maternal factors

Answer 17

Exercise
Nutrition
Disease
Emotional stress
Maternal age - after 30 having children is harder, post 35 its considered geriatric pregnancy

Question 18

fetal experience

Answer 18

Touch, taste - amniotic fluid, smell, hearing, sight, learning - habituation studies, familiarity responses
Habituation - decrease in response to repeated stimulation
Cell’s functions - initially flexible and then inflexible

Question 19

brain shape

Answer 19

cell body
dendrite surrounds the nucleus
axon sends out the information
myelin sheath insulates the axon

Question 20

axon differentiation

Answer 20

neural and architectural, the length of the axon drastically changes depending on the function of the neuron

Question 21

synapses

Answer 21

synaptogenesis - gap between the axon that releases neurotransmitters
pruning - at birth the human brain is immature which results in too many synapses and the brain gradually prunes away the synapses that aren’t useful
synapses are created during the first few years of life

Question 22

myelinization

Answer 22

crucial for optimal brain function
multiple sclerosis is demyelination that eventually leads to death

Question 23

brain specialization

Answer 23

hemispheric specialization and lateralization
lobe specialization - because entrenched in the first few years of development

Question 24

plasticity

Answer 24

decreases over time, a 3 year old could relearn to speak but a 45 year old could not

Question 25

“experience expectant” plasticity

Answer 25

species typical experiences

Question 26

“experience-dependent” plasticity

Answer 26

effects of idiosyncratic experiences
based entirely on an experience that you’ve had (violin example)
ex. the fact that rats raised in cages with toys have more dendritic spines and more synapses per neuron that rats raised in cages without this stimulation

Question 27

timing of experience/sensitive periods

Answer 27

someone who plays the violin would have greater dexterity in the left hand meaning that the right side of the brain would be more active

Question 28

appropriate levels of stimulation

Answer 28

receiving the right amount of stimulation at the right amount of time
ex. premature babies need to be kept in quiet dark environments because the brain is not ready for the stimulation outside the womb

Question 29

prenatal stress effects

Answer 29

prenatal stress increases plasticity
when there is low prenatal stress it doesn’t matter where there is high or low contact care
but high prenatal stress with high contact care has heightened plasticity and high stress with low contact led to stress response problems

Question 30

nativism

Answer 30

development is predetermined by genetic factors
problem: cant separate out effects of experience, no such thing as development that happens in the absence of an environment

Question 31

behaviorism

Answer 31

behavior = amalgamation of condition responses
avoidance of internal constructs

Question 32

behaviorism: reductionism

Answer 32

complex behavior made up of more simple behavior
study simple pieces to understand the complexity of how they fit together

Question 33

behaviorism: parsimony

Answer 33

the simplest explanation is best because it accounts for the most behavior
static learning mechanism
keep adding new reinforcements

Question 34

behaviorism: problems

Answer 34

reductionism is not an adequate explanation for all phenomena - learning is heavily affected by many factors
stimulus-response patterns can not account for some cognitive achievements

Question 35

Piaget’s theory: stage theory

Answer 35

discrete - either this stage or that stage
hierarchical - have to master challenges at one stage before moving on to the next

Question 36

Piaget’s theory: discontinuous

Answer 36

one stage and then the next, no transition period

Question 37

Piaget’s theory: invariant, universal, method

Answer 37

Invariant - no matter who you are and where you are you would undergo the same order of steps
Universal - the same processes everywhere and across time
Method - induce underlying cognitive structures from behavior

Question 38

constructivist approach

Answer 38

children discover knowledge through their own activity
engage in meaning-making behaviors

Question 39

Piaget’s theory: schemes

Answer 39

an organized way of making sense of experience that changes with age

Question 40

schemes: mental representation

Answer 40

internal depiction of information, images and concepts

Question 41

schemes: adaptation

Answer 41

respond to demands of the environment
aim to meet own goals
building and adjusting schemes

Question 42

schemes: assimilation and accommodation

Answer 42

using current schemes to interpret the external world
adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit the environment

Question 43

schemes: equilibration and organization

Answer 43

back and forth adjustment
internal rearranging

Question 44

Piaget’s stages

Answer 44

Sensorimotor - birth to 2
Preoperational - 2 to 7
Concrete operations - 7 to 11
Formal operations - 11 and up