Exam 1 Flashcards
(91 cards)
1
Q
heterozygous
A
When an individual has two different alleles for a particular gene
2
Q
Homozygous
A
When an individual has two of the same alleles for a particular gene
3
Q
Dominant
A
gene that directs the development of a particular characteristic even when the corresponding gene on the other chromosome is different
ie- some other allele
4
Q
Recessive
A
gene that directs the development of a particular characteristic only if the corresponding gene on the other chromosome matches it
ie- is the same allele
5
Q
Codominance
A
relationship in which both genes in the pair affect the phenotype
ie- blood type
AB
6
Q
What is necessary for evolution?
A
- There must be variation among the individuals within a population
- One of the variants must survive and reproduce at higher rates than others (because they are better adapted to the survival requirements of their environment)
- The traits associated with this superior survival and reproduction must be passed from parents to offspring
7
Q
What is necessary to maintain Homeostasis (a stable internal equilibrium)?
A
- A set point
- A sensor
- A comparator
A restitution response mechanism
8
Q
What is thermoregulation controlled by?
A
ANS (autonomic)
9
Q
Sympathetic Nervous System
A
“revs up” bodily activities in preparation for vigorous action (fight or flight)
10
Q
Parasympathetic Nervous System
A
restoring body’s internal activities to normal after action has been completed
calms body down
ie- Body too hot –> sweating and vasodilation to release heat
11
Q
Emergency Reaction
A
When confronted with a threat, our SNS becomes aroused and mobilizes us to deal with crisis
ie- increases the availability of nurtrients and oxygen to our muscles by increasing heart rate and respiration rate
12
Q
Food: What happened in the mouse study?
A
When the # of calories in the food was reduced, the mice ate a higher volume in food
When the # of calories was increased, the mice ate a lower volume of food
13
Q
What does the Hypothalamus contain?
A
contains glucoreceptors that monitor the amount of glucose in the blood stream
14
Q
What is the brain’s main source of energy?
A
Glucose
15
Q
What happens if you block Glucoreceptors in the brain?
A
Results in ravenous eating because the brain cannot recognize that the body is satiated
16
Q
Stomach
A
walls contain receptors that send signals to the brain that indicate that food is about to enter the small intestine, which is a satiety signal
17
Q
Adipose tissue (fat cells)
A
fat cells contain fatty acid in which excess nutrients can be stored for future use
18
Q
What happens when Adipose tissue becomes full?
A
the fatty cells secrete a chemical called Leptin into the bloodstream that signals the huypothalamus that we are full and then the hypothalamus then inhibits Neuropeptide
19
Q
What is Neuropeptide (NPY)?
A
appetite stimulant
20
Q
What is Leptin
A
Appetite reducer
21
Q
Dual control-theory
A
The lateral hypothalamus serves as the “go” center for eating while the ventromedial hypothalamus serves as the “Stop” center
22
Q
What happens when there is damage to the lateral area (Aphagia)
A
seems to disrupt the initiation of eating
23
Q
What happens when there is damage to the ventromedial area (Hyperphagia)
A
disrupts the cessation of eating
24
Q
“Thrifty-Gene” Hypothesis
A
Individuals with genes that caused them to have especially inefficient metabolisms, and as a result, store more fat would have been at a survival advantage in times when food supplies were unpredicatble and shortages were common
ie-Venus of Prague
25
Identical Twin Study
- 12 pairs of identical male twins
| - each male ate 1000 calories per day above what was required to maintain their normal weight
26
Identical Twin Study
- 12 pairs of identical male twins
- each male ate 1000 calories per day above what was required to maintain their normal weight
- -> the amounts that were gained varied significantly across twin pairs
27
territoriality
securing/defending resources increases chances for an individual's survival
--> can increase prospects of being killed
28
Threat Display
physical and behavioral way of advertising to a competitor one's intent and ability to defend oneself or to fight for resourced
--it is used to convince the competitor to acquiesce
29
Appeasement Display (Conciliatory Display)
physical and behavioral way of indicating to a competitor one's willingness to acquiesce without the pressing issue to fight
30
Who makes the choice?
Females
31
what happens when survival of an offspring is difficult without cooperation from both parentss
selection for genes favoring monogamy occurs--> promote maximum survival of the offspring's genes
32
what happens when survival of an offspring is easy without cooperation from both parens
polygyny is the best strategy for promoting male's genes
33
Alpha Rhythm
A pattern of regular pulses visible in the EEG of a person who is relaxed but awake and typically has their eyes closed
"just before sleep"
34
Beta Ryhthm
rhythmic pattern in the brain's electrical activity often observed when someone is actively thinking about some specific topic
"alert wakefulness"
35
Delta Rhythm
slow wave, deep NREM sleep
| -beta activity is more active while delta has a slower heart rate
36
Sleep Stage 1
- when someone is falling asleep, they become drowsy and their EEG would demonstrate Alpha Rhythm
- fall into very light sleep from which they would easily awaken if there was some outside noise.
- may also experience fleeting imagery known as hypnagogic imagery"
37
Sleep Stage 2
- marked by two distinct patterns of brain activity
- sleep spindles(1 to 2 bursts of rapid brain-wave activity)
- K Complexes (very high-amplitude waves)
38
Sleep Stage 3
-Marked by emergence of slow, large EEG waves in a Delta Rhythm (4 or less cycles per second)
39
REM Sleep
sleep characterized by rapid eye movements
-EEG patterns similar to wakefulness, speeded heart and respiration, near-paralysis of skeletal muscles, and highly visual dreams
-called "Paradoxical Sleep" because there are a number of contradictions that occur.
(brain waves are similar to those of someone who is wide awake, yet we are in deep sleep and very sensitive to external stimulation
-we cycle through REM and non-REM throughout the night (4-5 REM periods in avg night; gradual increase in length; final period lasting up to 45 minutes)
40
What happens if one is awoken in REM sleep
sleep paraylis (like being unable to wake up from a nightmare)
41
How is sleep restorative?
replenishes/ replaces substances that we use when were awake
| E.G.- people show longer periods of slow-wave sleep after experiencing physical fatigue
42
What does sleep restore?
- Clears out cellular waste products created by routine metabolic activity
- Our bodies produce/secrete certain growth hormones which promote bodily repair at higher rates during sleep
- mental functioning
43
Sleep and the Brain
sustains important brain circuits in that synapses (connections between brain cells) need activity to maintain their strength
- resets overstimulated neurons to save energy and allow neurons to rest
- REM and slow-wave consolidates memories gained during the previous day
44
Afferent Nerves
Neurons that carry messages inward toward the central nervous system
-sensory neurons
45
Efferent Nerves
Neurons that carry messages outward from the central nervous system
-motor neurons
46
Interneurons
neurons that are neither efferent nor affernt but instead carry info from one neuron to another
-make "local" connections within the nervous system
47
Chain of neurons
see page 35/65 of slides
48
Opioid Analgesics
- aka "endogenous endorphins"
| - the body's natural pain relievers
49
placebo effects
have also been shown to reducre pain
ie- taking a placebo pill unknowingly
50
Nalaxone
an opioid antagonist
| -can block the effects of both placebo effects and our bodies' naturally produced opioids/endorphins
51
Intrinsically Rewarding
an activity or object that is pursued for its own sake
| ei- You teach because you enjoy it
52
Extrinsically Rewarding
an activity or object that is pursued because of rewards that are not an inherent part of the activity/object
53
Wanting
An organism's motivation to obtain a reward
| measured by the amount of effort the organism will exert to obtain it
54
Liking
pleasure that follows receipt of a reward
| -difficult to define behaviorally,
55
Nucleus Accumbens
dopamine rich area in the forebrain (striatum)
56
What region of the brain is linked to Liking?
```
Frontal cortex
(mediated by endorphins)
```
57
What region of the brain is linked to Wanting
```
Nucleus Accumbens
(mediated by dopamine)
```
58
What does cocaine/amphetamines do to the brain?
Increase dopamine action in the brain and greatly enhance self-stimulation/pleaure
59
What do alcohol and opiates do
They bring us pleasure without working on the dopamine system
--->suggests there is a "General Reward System" in the brain
60
Evolution
1. We know that organisms can be transformed (over time) by selective breeding
--crops, farm animals, dogs, etc
2. The fossil record provides ample evidence for evolutions claims
--bones of ancient species provide clear evidence for the various intermediate organisms that existed during the process in which one lineage evolved into another (e.g. caveman--- don't say this on test)
3. We can find anatomical leftovers in modern species that reveal the evolutionary past of species
E.G-- remnant hip anf leg bones inside whale fins --> whales descended from mammals that lived on land
+ Human coccyx-- tails
4. Examination of various organisms genomes/molecular structures also confirms the pattern of relatedness among species
5. We can watch the process of evolution un\folding in various present -day populations
61
Evolution: Lake Washington example
- (1976) Water went from murky --> clear, better for trout, harder for stucklefish
- -> Those who had more armour were more likely to surviv, and thus more likely to pass their trait onto offspring
- ->2005: low incidence of low armored fish
- natural selection (done by environment)
62
Evidence of Shared Ancestry-the "unity of life"
- birds and crocodiles genetically similar
- whales and hoofed mammals
- humans are the chimpanzees and bonobos
63
"Unity of Life" Fruit Fly Example
fruit flies have a gene called Apterous that plays a crucial role in their development(flies without a functional version of this gene lack wings
humans have a version of genes --> can substitute for this gene and can be given to flies
--> suggests that humans and flies have a common ancestor ....... k
64
"Unity of life": Monkey Example
Jellyfish have a gene that allows them to make a green fluorescent protein and this makes the jellyfish glow green
--> scientists took a copy of this gene from jellyfish and inserted it into the chromosomes of Rhesus Monkeys egg cells and these were then implanted in a surrogate mother monkey--> gave birth to monkeys that were able to make the green fluorescent protein and under the blue light the monkeys emit a green glow
65
Quasi-stable
all life is quasi-stable
| --the form stays the same even though there is a constant turnover of the basic material of which that form is composed
66
Survival is contingent on:
1. Protection: (most important) at least long enough for replication to occur
-through genetic mutation, organisms over time developed the ability to produce their own barriers and no longer had to depend on outside forces for protection
2. Replication: Reproducing conserves the form (genes, etc.) at the species level as insurance against inevitable destruction of the individual organism
--minimizes the effects of lethal mutations ("safety in #'s) ---> the more organisms there are, the less likely it is that they will all be subject to lethal mutations/ be killed off
--maximizes the effects of beneficial mutations, passing on new and advantageous traits to new offspring
-ability to replicate relied on the ability to allow certain ingredients through the protective membrane and keep dangerous substances out
3. Renewal: lots of energy is needed to maintain the semi-permeable membrane
4. Need for Communication among the Self's Parts
5. Need for Homeostatic Self-Regulation
---necessary to keep various aspects of the internal environment stable eat optimal levels to coordinate all functions
--departure= disadvantageous for survival
--homeostatic mechanisms evolved so that they could regulate the internal environment (negative feedback)
6. Need for ways of Adjudicating between Other Needs in Conflict
--judgement mechanisms developed to help the organism decide which of the present needs deserves greater priority
ie-- thirst v. hunger; shelter v. sex
7. Need for Self-Restoration and Maintenance of Readiness to Respond
--wear/tear consequences
-need for sleep and down time
67
Negative Feedback
any action's consequence that tends to stop or reverse that action
68
Need detector
presence of a need will go unattended to unless there are detectors to alert the organism to their presence
69
Success detector
rewards and encourages continuing engagement with that goal until the process of removing the need is complete
70
Ritualization of Function
-sexual display involves various dance-like species-specific behavior patterns that serve many function
71
What are the behavior pattern serving the functions
1. they advertise one's mating intentions to a targeted female
2. courtship rituals help females with whom they want to mate
3. show an ability to defend territory, resources, etc. and that the male's genes will promote their offspring's survival
4. often species specific--> only certain species perform a certain type of courtship ritual
72
importance of aggression?
shows the female that both territoty and her young would be protected
--indicative of testosterone and thus aggressive courtship rituals---> offspring will also inherit
73
Sleep/Dreaming
- 80+% awakened in REM sleep report dreaming
- -> tend to be pictoral
- 50% awakened in slow wave sleep report they were just dreaming
- -> "boring" dreams
- dreams occur in "real time"
74
Why do we dream: Manifest Content (Freud)
the content of our dreams that we are able to experience directly
-what "happened"
75
Why do we dream?: Latent Content (Freud)
actual wishes and desires that are being expressed (symbolically) through the manifest content
-the "real meaning" of the dream
76
Why do we dream?: Activiation-Synthesis Hypothesis
dreams may be byproduct of the sleeping brain's activities (activation)--> later assembled into a semi-coherent narrative(synthesis)
77
pons
During REM sleep, the pons (in brain's stem) produces bursts of neural activity(PGO WAVES)---> activates areas in the lateral geniculate nucleus (an important processing center for visual info)
78
geniculate nucleus
important processing center for visual info
79
What do the neural activity bursts (PGO WAVES) lead to ? (pons---> PGO waves)
activity in the occipital cortex (analyzes visual input)
80
occipital cortex
part of the brain that analyzes visual input
81
Why do we dream?: Why do certain images come to mind?
- brain areas have been primed by other neural activity (from recent experiences and recurrent thoughts)
- -> PGO activity and priming= images in dreams
82
Neural Communications
1. Reception: When a signal comes in from the pre-synaptic neuron, the signal is "received" chemically in the form of a neurotransmitter by the post-synaptic neuron (in post-synaptic sites)
2. Transduction: message from pre-synaptic neuron was chemical, but needs to be converted into an electrical message by the post-synaptic cell (in post-synaptic sites)
3. Conduction: Now the message will be sent by either the dendrites, or will go directly to the cell body (electrical impulse)
- --> message will be sent from cell body-> rest of the neuron
83
Stages of Neural Transmission: Decision
How the neuron responds on whether/not the net outcome of the incoming signals is EXCITATORY or INHIBITATORY (at Axon Hillock)
84
Stages of Neural Transmission: Active Conduction
If the electrical impulse reaches threshold, axon hillock will send an action potential down the axon to communicate the message to other neurons (in axon)
85
Stages of Neural Trans.: Transduction
electrical signal is "transduced" into a chemical signal (release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synapse)(in axon terminals)
86
Stages of Neural Trans.: Reaction
message is communicated to another neuron which results in some sort of output (either comm. to another cell / output by the body)
87
Chain of Interneurons
example: eating --> decide whether/not to eat food
| - # of incoming msgs. to our interneurons which wwill either excite or inhibit other neurons to communicate with others
88
Neuronal Determinants of eating
1. taste
2. Whether/not we are already full
3. Whether or not we can anatomically eat(respiratory)
4. thirst level
5. danger of food (allergy)
6. safe time to eat
89
Withdrawal Reflex: Flexion reflexes
typically associated with withdrawal (pulling your hand back from flame)
90
Withdrawal Reflex: Extensor Reflexes
typically associated with postural reactions (uphold body against gravity)
91
Withdrawal Reflex: Tack Example
1. Activation of flexor muscle to withdraw foot from tack
2. Cancel the command to the extensor muscle that was preparing leg to straighten leg for step
3. Activation of extensor muscle of other leg to support weight of body
4. cancelled the command to the flexor muscle of the foot doing the next step
- --> tack point activated the pain receptor in foot
- --> pain signal traveled into the spinal cord where it then followed 3 routes
- -----1 route: interneuron was activated (excitatory to the motor neuron commanding flexor muscle to move foot)
- ----2 route: interneuron activated (inhibitory to the motor neuron commanding the extensor muscle, so that the motor neuron would ignore any messages to comlpete stepping motion
- ----3 route: interneuron was activated which sent a message to the other side of the spinal cord to both excite a motor neuron to activate the extensor muscle in the other leg, and inhibit a motor neuron that was going to activate the flexor muscle in the other leg
