Exam 1 Flashcards
(149 cards)
1
Q
Large database, compiled by the FBI, of crimes reported and arrests made each year throughout the United States
A
Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
2
Q
The 8 most serious offenses included in the UCR: murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft
A
Part I crimes
3
Q
the willful killing of one human being by another
A
murder/nonnegligent manslaughter
4
Q
Under common law, the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will
New definition: the penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ without the consent of the victim
A
forcible rape
5
Q
the taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear
A
robbery
6
Q
an unlawful attack by one person upon another, accompanied by the use of a weapon, for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury
A
aggravated assault
7
Q
the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft
A
burglary
8
Q
the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another
A
larceny
9
Q
the theft of a motor vehicle
A
motor vehicle theft
10
Q
the willful or malicious burning of a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle, aircraft, personal property of another, or the like
A
arson
11
Q
all other crimes, aside from the eight Part I crimes, included in the UCR arrest data. Part II crimes include drug offenses, sex crimes, and vandalism, among others
A
Part II crimes
12
Q
Program that requires police agencies to provide a brief account of each incident and arrest within 22 crime patterns, including incident, victim, and offender information
A
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
13
Q
selecting a limited number of people for study as representative of a larger group
A
sampling
14
Q
all people who share a particular characteristic, such as all high school students or police officers
A
population
15
Q
the ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation
A
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
16
Q
a research approach that requires subjects to reveal their own participation in delinquent or criminal acts
A
self-report survey
17
Q
the view that women who commit crimes have biological and psychological traits similar to those of men
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masculinity hypothesis
18
Q
a view of crime that suggests that the social and economic role of women in society controls their crime rates
A
liberal feminist theory
19
Q
as the size of the black population increases, the perceived threat to the white population increases, resulting in a greater amount of social control imposed on blacks
A
racial threat theory
20
Q
Police-initiated action directed at a suspect or group of suspects based solely on race
A
racial profiling
21
Q
offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal
A
instrumental crimes
22
Q
offenses committed not for profit or gain but to vent rage, anger, or frustration
A
expressive crimes
23
Q
phrase used to express the fact that people commit less crime as they mature
A
aging out
24
Q
a chemical substance, such as dopamine, that transmits nerve impulses from one neuron to another
A
neurotransmitter
25
the small group of persistent offenders who account for a majority of all criminal offenses
chronic offenders/career criminals
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the view that repeat offenders begin their criminal careers at a very young age
early onset
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laws that require offenders to serve life in prison after they are convicted of a third felony offense
three-strikes policies
28
the scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior
criminology
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actions that depart from the social norm
deviant behavior
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system made up of the agencies of social control, such as police departments, courts, and correctional institutions that handle criminal offenders
criminal justice
31
the various subareas included within the scholarly discipline of criminology, which, taken as a whole, define the field of study
criminological enterprise
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a measure that actually measures what it purports to measure
valid measure
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a measure that produces consistent results from one measurement to another
reliable measure
34
refers to those killings in which the victim is a direct, positive precipitator of the incident
victim precipitated homicide
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illegal acts that capitalize on a person's status in the marketplace. ex. theft, embezzlement, fraud, market manipulation, restraint of trade, and false advertising
white-collar crime
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subarea of criminology that focuses on the correction and control of criminal offenders
penology
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treatment of criminal offenders that is aimed at preventing future criminal behavior
rehabilitation
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a statutory requirement that a certain penalty shall be carried out in all cases of conviction for a specified offense or series of offenses
mandatory sentences
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the execution of criminal offenders; the death penalty
capital punishment
40
the study of the victim's role in criminal events
victimology
41
theoretical perspective suggesting that people choose to commit crime and that crime can be controlled if potential criminals fear punishment
classical criminology
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the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces that can be empirically measured
positivism
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the use of verifiable principles
scientific method
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approach to criminology, based on the work of Émile Durkheim, that focuses on the relationship between social factors and crime
sociological criminology
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a lack of norms or clear social standards
anomie
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Group of urban sociologists who studied the relationship between environmental conditions and crime
Chicago School
47
process of human development and enculturation. socialization is influenced by key social processes and institutions
socialization
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the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends
conflict theory
49
the view that crime is a product of the capitalist system
critical criminology
50
the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the would-be offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act
rational choice theory
51
the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits
trait theory
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the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime
social structure theory
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the view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society
social process theory
54
examine how those who hold political and economic power shape the law to uphold their self-intersts
critical criminologists
55
an act deemed socially harmful or dangerous that is specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under criminal law
crime
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having criminal penalties reduced rather than eliminated
decriminalized
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the belief that the majority of citizens in a society share common values and agree on what behaviors should be defined
consensus view
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the written code that defines crimes and their punishments
criminal law
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the belief that criminal behavior is defined by those in power in such a way as to protect and advance their own self-interest
conflict view
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the belief that those with social power are able to impose their values on society as a whole and these values then define criminal behavior
interactionist view
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The first written criminal code, developed in Babylonia about 1750 BCE
Code of Hammurabi
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The laws of the ancient Israelites, found in the Old Testament of the Judeo-Christian Bible
Mosaic Code
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a rule derived from previous judicial decision and applied to future cases; the basis of common law
precedent
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early English law, developed bu judges which became the standardized law of the land in England and eventually formed the basis of the criminal law in the United States
common law
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crimes defined by legislative bodies in response to changing social conditions, public opinion, and custom
statutory crimes
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a serious offense that carries a penalty of imprisonment, usually for one year or more, and may entail loss of political rights
felony
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a minor crime usually punished by a short jail term and/or a fine
misdemeanor
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the agencies of government that are responsible for apprehending, adjudicating, sanctioning, and treating criminal offenders
criminal justice system
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the taking into police custody of an individual suspected of a crime
arrest
70
a set of facts, information, circumstances, or conditions that would lead a resonable person to believe that an offense was committed and that the accused committed that offense - the level of proof needed to make a legal arrest
probable cause
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fingerprinting, photographing, and recording personal information of a suspect in police custody
booking
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the questioning of a suspect in police custody
interrogation
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a declaration that expresses the prosecutor's decision to drop a case from further prosecution
nolle prosequi
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a written accusation returned by a grand jury charging an individual with a specified crime, based on the prosecutor's demonstration of probable cause
indictment
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a group of citizens chosen to hear testimony in secret and to issue formal criminal accusations
grand jury
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a filing before an impartial lower-court judge who decides whether the case should go forward (this filing is an alternative to the use of a grand jury
information
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alternative to a grand jury, in which an impartial lower-court judge decides whether there is probable cause sufficient for a trial
preliminary hearing
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a money bond intended to ensure that the accused will return for trial
bail
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the step in the criminal justice process in which the accused is brought before the trial judge, formal charges are read, defendants are informed of their rights, a plea is entered, bail is considered, and a trial date is set
arraignment
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pledge by the accused to return for trial which may be accepted in lieu of bail
recognizance
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agreement between prosecution and defense in which the accused pleads guilty in return for a reduction of charges, a more lenient sentence, or some other consideration
plea bargain
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a jury that is unable to agree on a decison thus leaving the case unresloved and open for a possible retrial
hung jury
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taking a criminal case to a higher court on the grounds that the defendant was found guilty because of legal error or violation of his or her constitutional rights
appeal
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the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act
rational choice theory
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a theory of crime suggesting that criminal behavior is a matter of personal choice, made after the individual considers its costs and benefits, and that the criminal behavior reflects the needs of the offender
classical criminology
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the view that an offender reacts selectively to the characteristics of a particular criminal act
offense-specific crime
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the view that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit the criminal act
offender-specific crime
88
the excitement or exhilaration of successfully executing illegal activities in dangerous situations
edgework
89
the situational inducements or immediate benefits that draw offenders into law violations
seductions of crime
90
a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in specific settings
situational crime prevention
91
the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity that individyals have to commit crime
defensible space
92
people who serve as guardians of property or people
crime discouragers
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an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another
diffusion
94
an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations
discouragement
95
an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets
displacement
96
an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions
extinction
97
an effect that occurs wen criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice
replacement
98
a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits
general deterrence
99
the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts
specific deterrence
100
confinement in jail or prison
incarceration
101
repetition of criminal behavior
recidivism
102
the idea that keeping offenders in confinement will eliminate the risk of their committing further offenses
incapacitation effect
103
the view that human behavior is motivated by inborn biological urges to survive and preserve the species
sociobiology
104
assumes there is a direct link between traits and crime; some people are vulnerable to crime from birth
vulnerability model
105
the view that some people are predisposed to environmental influences
differential susceptibility model
106
the study of brain activity
neurophysiology
107
a pattern of repetitive behavior in which the rights of others or social norms are violated
conduct disorder
108
the view that people seek to maintain a preferred level of arousal but vary in how they process sensory input; a need for high levels of environmental stimulation may lead to aggressive, violent behavior patterns
arousal theory
109
Freudian theory that the human personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes that develop early in childhood and involve the interaction of id, ego, and superego
psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theory
110
Bowlby's theory that being able to form an emotional bond to another person is an important aspect of mental health throughout the life span
attachment theory
111
the view that all human behavior is learned through a process of social reinforcement (rewards and punishment)
behavior theory
112
the view that human behavior is modeled through observation of human social interactions, either directly from observing those who are close and from intimate contact, or indirectly through the media; interactions that are rewarded are copied, while those that are punished are avoided
social learning theory
113
the process of learning behavior (notably, aggression) by observing others; aggressive models may be parents, criminals in the neighborhood, or characters on television or in movies
behavior modeling
114
psychological perspective that focuses on the mental processes by which people perceive and represent the world around them and solve problems
cognitive theory
115
theory that focuses on how people process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems
information-processing theory
116
the reasonably stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and emotions, that distinguish one person from another
personality
117
combination of traits, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, hedonism, and inability to empathize with others, that make a person prone to deviant behavior and violence; also referred to as sociopathic or psychopathic personality
antisocial personality
118
intelligence is largely determined genetically and that low intelligence is linked to criminal behavior
nature theory
119
intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of environment; low IQ scores do not cause crime but may result from the same environmental factors
nurture theory
120
a condition in whcih the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances
mood disorder
121
a pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior, during which a child often loses her or his temper, often argues with adults, and often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or rules
oppositional defiant disorder
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a severe disorder marked by hearing nonexistent voices, seeing hallucinations, and exhibiting inappropriate responses
schizophrenia
123
an emotional disturbance in which moods alternate between periods of wild elation and deep depression
bipolar disorder
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programs, such as substance abuse clinics and mental health associations, that seek to treat personal problems before they manifest themselves as crime
primary prevention programs
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programs that provide treatment, such as psychological counseling, to youths and adults after they have violated the law
secondary prevention programs
126
people grouped according to economic or social class; characterized by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige
stratified society
127
segment of the population whose members are at a relatively similar economic level and who share attitudes, values, norms, and an identifiable lifestyle
social class
128
a separate lower-class culture, characterized by apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of social institutions such as schools, government agencies, and the police, that is passed from one generation to the next
culture of poverty
129
the lowest socia lstratum in any country, whose members lack the education and skills needed to function successfully in modern society
underclass
130
branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown in inner-city neighborhoods of institutions such as the family, school, and employment
social disorganization theory
131
branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people's goals and the means available to obtain them
strain theory
132
the anger, frustration, and resentment experienced by people who believe they cannot achieve their goals through legitimate means
strain
133
branch of social structure theory that sees strain and social disorganization together resulting in a unique lower-class culture that conflicts with conventional social norms
cultural deviance theory
134
an area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from middle-class residential to lower-class mixed-use
transitional neighborhood
135
as working-class adn middle-class families flee inner-city poverty-ridden areas, the most disadvantaged population is consoidated in urban ghettos
concentration effect
136
social control exerted by cohesive communities and based on mutual trust, including intervention in the supervision of childrena nd maintenance of public order
collective efficacy
137
the view that anomie results when socially defined goals, such as wealth and power, are universally mandated but access to legitimate means, such as education adn job opportunities is stratified by class and status
anomie theory
138
the view that anomie pervades US culture because the drive for material wealth dominates and undermines social and community values
institutional anomie theory
139
the goal of accumulating material goods and wealth through individual competition; the process of being socialized to pursue material success and to believe it is achievable
American Dream
140
envy, mistrust, and aggression resulting from perceptions of economic and social inequality
relative deprivation
141
the view that multiple sources of strain interact with an individuals emotional traits and responses to produce criminality
general strain theory
142
anger, frustration, and adverse emotions produced by a variety of sources of strain
negative affective states
143
values, such as toughness and street smarts, that have evolved specifically to fit conditions in lower-class environments
focal concerns
144
process whereby values, beliefs, and traditions are handed down from one generation to the next
cultural transmission
145
a value system adopted by lower-class youths that is directly opposed to that of the larger society
delinquent subculture
146
a form of culture conflict experience by lower-class youths because social conditions prevent them from achieving success as defined by the larger society
status frustration
147
the standards by which authority figures, such as teachers and employers, evaluate lower-class youngsters and often prejudge them negatively
middle-class measuring rods
148
irrational hostility evidenced by young delinquents, who adopt norms directly opposed to middle-class goals and standards that seem impossible to achieve
reaction formation
149
the view that lower-class youths, whose legitimate opportunities are limited, join gangs and pursue criminal careers as alternative means to achieve universal success goals
differential opportunity
