Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Form (______) is related to function (________).
A
Anatomy, physiology
2
Q
Six levels of structural organization of the body
A
- Chemical 2. Cellular 3. Tissue 4. Organ 5. Organ system 6. Organismal
3
Q
Define the chemical level of the structural organization of the body.
A
Defined by reactions among atoms and molecules
4
Q
Four types of tissues in the human body
A
- Epithelial (skin) 2. Connective (found between organs, holds them together) 3. Muscular (provide movement of the entire body) 4. Nervous (allows communication between diff. parts of the body)
5
Q
The 11 major organ systems
A
- Integumentary 2. Skeletal 3. Muscular 4. Nervous 5. Endocrine 6. Circulatory 7. Lymphatic 8. Respiratory 9. Digestive 10. Excretory 11. Reproductive
6
Q
6 basic life processes
A
- Metabolism 2. Responsiveness 3. Movement 4. Growth 5. Differentiation 6. Reproduction
7
Q
What is characterized as growth?
A
An increase in body size resulting from an increase in number of cells, an increase in size of existing a cells, and an increase in extracellular material of tissues
8
Q
2 contexts of reproduction
A
The production of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement; production of a new individual via fertilization of an egg (oocyte) by a sperm cell
9
Q
Body fluids
A
Dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of cell
10
Q
How is homeostasis maintained?
A
Via feedback systems or feedback loops
11
Q
Components of a feedback system
A
Receptor, control center, effector
12
Q
Example of a feedback system
A
- Nerve endings (receptors) in skin detect rise in external (atmospheric) and internal (body) temperature. 2. Brain (control center) receives sensory input from nerve endings and sends motor output to muscles and glands. 3. Sweat glands (effector) increase secretion and blood vessels in skin dilate to lower body temp.
13
Q
3 subatomic particles of an atom
A
Protons, neutrons, and electrons
14
Q
Three numbers that are used to describe atoms
A
Atomic number, mass number, atomic mass
15
Q
Number of protons =?
A
Number of electrons
16
Q
What does the molecular formula indicate?
A
The elements involved and number of atoms of each element
17
Q
Atom is the smallest unit of an ________, a molecule is the smallest unit of a __________.
A
Element, compound
18
Q
What does a structural formulas indicate?
A
The elements involved, number of atoms involved, and arrangement of atoms in relation tone another
19
Q
How many electrons does the 1st shell hold?
A
2 e-
20
Q
How many electrons does the 2nd shell hold?
A
8 e-
21
Q
How many electrons does the 3rd shell hold?
A
18 e-
22
Q
Why do atoms lose, gain or share electrons in particular ways?
A
In order to form stable valence electron shells
23
Q
What element is an exception to the octet rule?
A
Hydrogen
24
Q
What are the 2 elements that only have one electron shell?
A
Hydrogen and helium, stable with 2 electrons
25
Forms of energy
Kinetic, potential and chemical energy
26
Amount of activation energy is dependent upon?
Concentration of reactants and temperature
27
4 important properties of water
1. As a solvent 2. Lubricant 3. Thermal properties (high heat capacity) 4. Water in metabolic reactions
28
How does water work as a lubricant?
A layer of water can reduce friction between two opposing surfaces
29
What is the effect of water having a high heat capactity?
Absorbs a lot of heat with only a small change in its own temperature; Decreases effect of temperature changes on the body
30
How are salts formed?
Acids and bases react with one another to form salts
31
What range of pH is considered acidic?
pH \< 7
32
What range of pH is considered basic?
pH \> 7
33
What pH is considered neutral?
pH = 7
34
Major categories of organic compounds
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
35
Role of carbon in organic molecules
Form covalent bonds with one another to form long chains (straight or branched) or rings
36
Example of monosaccharides
Glucose and fructose
37
Example of a disaccharide
Sucrose (table sugar)
38
Lipids include?
1. Fatty acids 2. Triglycerides (fats and oils) 3. Phospholipids 4. Steroids 5. Eicosanoids 6. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
39
Where are triglycerides stored?
In adipose (fat) tissue as an energy reserve
40
What bond joins an amino acid?
Peptide bond
41
What determines the function of a protein?
Its structure, ex: the structure of an enzyme allows it to bind to a substrate
42
What is the structure of a DNA)?
Two stranded coil around one another (double helix); each strand composed of sequences of nucleotides and pair of nitrogenous bases located between two strands
43
What is the structure of RNA?
Single stranded (in humans), pentose sugar is ribose (not deoxyribose) and uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
44
3 types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA)
45
Study of the structure of the body and describes different parts of the body
Anatomy
46
How is ADP (adenosine triphosphate) produced?
By removing a phosphate group from ATP; this releases energy
47
How is ATP produced?
By adding a phosphate group back to ADP; this uses energy
48
Study of the functions of the body; understanding how the part of the body works
Physiology
49
Basic structural and functional unit of living organisms
Cell
50
Groups of cells and associated materials that work together to perform a particular function
Tissues
51
Consist of 2 or more tissue types, have recognizable shapes, and perform specific functions
Organs
52
Consist of related organs that work together to perform a common function; 11 major organ system
Organ system
53
Discrete individual
Organism
54
The sum of all chemical reactions that occurring the body; includes catabolism and anabolism
Metabolism
55
Releases energy; breaking down complex molecules into more simple molecules
Catabolism
56
Requires energy; synthesizing complex molecules from more simple molecules
Anabolism
57
Ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment (internal or external)
Responsiveness
58
Motions of the entire body, individual organs, single cells or cellular structures
Movement
59
The development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state
Differentiation
60
Unspecialized cells
Stem cells
61
Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body's external environment; maintenance of various body conditions within relatively narrow acceptable ranges despite changes in the internal and external environment; includes regulation of volume and composition of body fluids
Homeostasis
62
Fluid within cells (also called cytosol)
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
63
Fluid outside of cells; fluid within tissues and within body cavities (blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, etc.)
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
64
Extracellular fluid within tissues
Interstitial fluid
65
Monitor changes in a controlled condition, e.g. Sensory structures associated with nervous system
Receptor
66
Sets range of acceptable values for the controlled condition, evaluates input from receptor, sends output to effector, e.g. Central nervous system
Control center
67
Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition, e.g. Muscles and glands
Effector
68
Response reverses a change in the controlled condition; homeostasis is almost always maintained by,negative feedback system
Negative feedback system
69
The response reinforces a change in the controlled condition; requires an outside event to interrupt it; used to reinforce conditions that do not happen frequently, e.g. childbirth
Positive feedback system
70
Basic building blocks of all matter; cannot be split into simpler substances and composed of one type of atom
Chemical elements
71
Smallest unit of element that retains the properties and characteristics of the element
Atoms
72
+ charge, large, nucleus
Protons
73
Neutral charge, large, in the nucleus
Neutrons
74
- charge, small, orbiting around nucleus
Electrons
75
Equal to number of protons in an atom; elements are defined by the number of protons in its atom
Atomic number
76
Number of protons + number of neutrons in an atom
Mass number
77
Also called atomic weight; the avg. mass of all of its naturally occurring isotopes
Atomic mass
78
measure of mass of atoms (also called atomic mass unit = amu)
Daltons
79
Atoms of a given element may have different numbers of neutrons; the most common isotope has the same number of neutrons as protons
Isotopes
80
An atom that has gone or lost one or more electrons; electrically charged and includes cations and anions
Ion
81
An atom that has gained one or more electrons; NEGATIVELY CHARGED
Anions
82
Substance composed of two or more types of atoms (two or more elements); symbolized by molecular formulas
Compounds
83
Specific regions where electrons orbit the nucleus
Electron shells
84
Outermost shell
Valence shell
85
Te forces that hold atoms of a molecule together; forms when atoms lose, gain or share electrons
Chemical bonds
86
Valence shells are stable when they hold 8 electrons, unstable if they hold more or less than 8 electrons
Octet rule
87
Formed when one atoms loses one or more electrons to another atom
Ionic bonds
88
Formed when two atoms share one, two or three pairs of electrons in latest for both stone to have stable valence shells (octet rule)
Covalent bonds
89
Formed when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts an atom with a partial negative charge; depends on attraction between polar molecules; weaker than ionic or covalent
Hydrogen bonds
90
When two atoms share electrons equally
Nonpolar covalent bonds
91
One (electronegative) atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other atom; unequally sharing of electrons
Polar covalent bonds
92
Has a partial positive charge in one region and a partial negative charge in another region
Polar molecule
93
Interactions between atoms; involve forming or breaking chemical reacts between atoms
Chemical reactions
94
Matter convert from one form to another during a chemical reaction. Matter is to created or destroyed. (balancing equations)
Law of conservation of mass
95
Movement of an object or change in the physical structure of matter
Work
96
Capacity to do work
Energy
97
Kinetic, potential and chemical energy
Forms of energy
98
Energy matter in motion
Kinetic energy
99
Stored energy derived from an object's position or from its physical or chemical state
Potential energy
100
Energy stored in chemical bonds; a form of potential energy
Chemical energy
101
Energy is converted from one form to another during a chemical reaction; energy is not created or destroyed
Law of conservation of energy
102
Input of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
Activation energy
103
Chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy; they are not changed or consumed by the chemical reaction so they can catalyze many reactions
Catalysts
104
Specialized proteins that serve as catalysts in living organisms, including humans
Enzymes
105
Release more energy than they absorb; generally associated with catabolism (breaking chemical bonds)
Exergonic reactions
106
Absorb more energy than they release; generally associated with anabolism (forming chemical bonds)
Endergonic reactions
107
Usually lack carbon; may have ionic or covalent bonds and are usually structurally simple, ex. H2O
Inorganic compounds
108
Always contain carbon and usually contain hydrogen; always have covalent bonds and often structurally complex
Organic compounds
109
the medium in which other substances are dissolved
Solvent
110
The dissolved substances
Solute
111
Ions and polar molecules; form an aqueous solution and dissolves in water
Hydrophilic substances
112
Nonpolar molecules, will not dissolve in water
Hydrophobic substances
113
the ability of a substance to absorb and retain heat
Heat capacity
114
Often produce water as a by production of the formation of complex molecules (dehydration synthesis)
Anabolic reactions
115
Often break down complex molecules by the addition of water (hydrolysis)
Catabolic reactions
116
Dissociates into a hydrogen ion (H+) and one or more anions; proton donor
Inorganic acids/acids
117
Dissociates into a hydroxide ion (OH-) and one or more cations; proton acceptor
Inorganic bases/bases
118
Dissociates into a cation (not H+) and an anion (not OH-)
Inorganic salts/salts
119
Measures the relative concentration of H+ and ranges from 0-14
pH
120
Formed by the combination of small organic molecules; often take the form of polymers
Macromolecules
121
Consist of many repeat, identical subunits called monomers
Polymers
122
Include sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose; contain C,H, and O; mainly used by human body as a source of chemical energy
Carbohydrates
123
Monomers of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
124
Two monosaccharides that formed a chemical bond with each other
Disaccharide
125
Made of many monosaccharides and consist of 10's to 100's of monomers
Polysaccharides
126
Synthesized by animals (including human); store in the liver and skeletal muscles of humans as an energy reserve
Glycogen
127
Produced by plants; used for energy storage by plants and are digestible to humans
Starches
128
Produced by plants and used to build cell walls by plants; indigestible to humans
Cellulose
129
Contain C, H, and O; typically insoluble in water (hydrophilic) and are polymers composed of fatty acids
Lipids
130
The most simple lipid; Consist of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
Fatty acids
131
Composed of a glycerol and 3 fatty acids; at room temperature, it can be solid (fat) or liquid (oils)
Triglycerides
132
Composed of 1 glycerol molecule, 2 fatty acids (nonpolar), 1 phosphate group (PO43-) (polar); makes up the cell membrane; Amphiphatic
Phospholipids
133
Composed of polar (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) parts
Amphiphatic molecules
134
Polymers composed of amino acids; Contain C, H, O and N (sometimes S); more complex than carbs or lipids; have structural and functional orioles and include enzymes (biological catalysts)
Proteins
135
Makes up a protein; includes an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) group, and a side chain (different in each amino acid)
Amino acids
136
-Covalent bond between the carbon atom of the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid - and the nitrogen atom of the amino (-NH2) group of the other amino acid
Peptide bond
137
Joins many amino acids in a long chain
Polypeptide
138
The sequence of amino acid monomers
Primary protein structure
139
The twisting or folding of the polypeptide chain
Secondary protein structure
140
The 3D shape of the protein
Tertiary structure
141
The structural relationship between polypeptide chains
Quaternary protein structure
142
Process in which proteins lose their 3D shape when exposed to extremes of pH or temperature; it interrupts the proper functioning of the protein
Denaturation
143
Polymers composed of nucleotide monomers; contains C, H, O, N, and P; include DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids
144
Double stranded and found in the cell's nucleus; the inherited genetic material inside cells
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
145
Single stranded; found in nucleus or in cytoplasm of cell; relays info between DNA and cellular machinery of protein synthesis
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
146
Consist of a pentode sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate (PO43-) group, and one of 4 nitrogenous bases
Nucleotides of DNA
147
Large, double ringed; adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Purines
148
Small, single ringed; thymine (T) and cytosine (C)
Pyrimidines
149
A-T, G-C
Base pairs
150
Energy "currency" of cells (storage of energy), derived from adenine
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
