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Cell Biology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Hierarchy of Biological Organization

A

Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism

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2
Q

4 Types of Tissues

A

Epithelial, Connective, Nervous, Muscle

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3
Q

11 Organ Systems

A

Nervous, endocrine, digestive, integumentary, skeletal, immune, respiratory, circulatory, muscular, urinary, reproductive

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4
Q

Nervous System

A

Function: control, coordination using neurotransmitters, reception of stimuli and formation of response
Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs

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5
Q

Endocrine System

A

Function: control, coordination using hormones
Components: pancreas, thyroid, pituitary, parathyroid, gonads, hypothalamus, adrenal, pineal

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6
Q

Reproductive System

A

Function: creation of gametes, sex
Male Components: penis, urethra, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, testes, epididymis, prostate, bulbourethral gland
Female Components: uterus, ovaries, vagina, oviducts, cervix

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7
Q

Digestive System

A

Function: absorption, elimination, ingestion, digestion
Components: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, anus

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8
Q

Circulatory System

A

Function: distribution of materials
Components: blood vessels, heart, blood

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9
Q

Urinary System

A

Function: disposal of metabolic waste, regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Components: kidneys, urethra, ureters, urinary bladder

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10
Q

Skeletal System

A

Function: locomotion, protection, support
Components: bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage

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11
Q

Muscular System

A

Function: locomotion, movement
Components: skeletal muscles

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12
Q

Integumentary System

A

Function: thermoregulation, protection from infection, mechanical damage, dehydration
Components: skin, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, nails, hair

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13
Q

Immune System

A

Function: protection from infection
Components: bone marrow, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, spleen, white blood cells

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14
Q

Respiratory System

A

Function: exchange of gases with the environment
Components: nasal cavity, trachea, larynx, bronchi, lungs

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15
Q

Conformers vs Regulators

A

Regulators:

  • maintain stable internal environment despite external factors
  • can’t tolerate large internal fluctuations

Conformers:

  • lets their internal environment change in accordance with internal or external factors
  • can tolerate large internal fluctuations
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16
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • Maintaining same internal balance
  • Usually relies on negative feedback systems
  • Rarely relies on positive feedback systems
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17
Q

Positive Feedback System in Homeostatis

A

Normally when there’s some kind of end state.

Example: blood loss causes in crease in platelets, increasing platelets until wound is closed

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18
Q

Feedback System Components

A

Stimulus -> Sensor -> Control Center -> Effector -> Response (usually directly leads to change of stimulus)

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19
Q

Blood Glucose Regulation

A

+ pancreas releases glucagon

- pancreas releases insulin

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20
Q

Body Temperature Regulation

A 
\+ vasoconstriction
\+ hairs stand erect
\+ muscles shiver
- vasodilation
- skin releases sweat
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21
Q

Testes Temperature Regulation

A

+ scrotum contract

- scrotum distend

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22
Q

Blood pH Regulation

A

+ respiratory rate speeds up
+ urinary system excretes H+ ions
- respiratory rate slows down
- urinary system reabsorbs H+ ions

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23
Q

Vaginal pH Regulation

A

+ uterus walls reabsorbs H+ ions

- uterus walls secrete more H+ ions

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24
Q

Blood Calcium Regulation

A 
\+ parathyroid releases PTH
\+ bones break down
\+ urinary reabsorbs calcium
- thyroid releases calcitonin
- bones reabsorb calcium
- urinary system excretes calcium
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25
Extracellular Fluid Regulation
- lymphatic system collects extracellular fluid
26
Blood Pressure Regulation
``` + urinate less + heart beats faster + stroke volume higher + vasoconstriction - urinate more - heart beats slower - stroke volume lowers - vasodilation ```
27
Water Cohesion
cohesion - h-bonds holds the substance together adhesion - clinging of one substance to another Examples: - high cohesion of water causes high surface tension - cohesion causes evapotranspiration to pull water through xylems of plants
28
Water Temperature Moderation
- High specific heat - High energy input needed to change temperature slightly. The consequence is that water can absorb lots of heat - High heat of vaporization. Good for lowering body temperature through sweating.
29
Water Expansion when Freezing
Less dense as a solid than as a liquid. | Max density at 4C. At 0C, water creates crystal lattice, making it 10% less dense.
30
Water as Universal Solvent
Very polar. Forms hydration shells around dissolved ions/molecules.
31
pH Scale Formula
-log([H+])
32
Buffer Role
Minimizes changes in [H+] by accepting H+ when in excess and donating when depleted.
33
Carbon Skeleton Diversity
- branching - linear/ring - double/triple bonding - length
34
Major Functional Groups
Hydroxyl - (R-OH) polar, water soluble, hydrophilic Carbonyl - (R=O) ketones or aldehyde, hydrophilic Carboxyl - (COOH) acid, hydrophilic Amino - (NH2) base, hydrophylic Sulfydryl - (SH) form crosslinks between other SH groups Phosphate - (PO4) hydrophilic, contributes to negative charge Methyl - (CH3) acts as tag, hydrophobic
35
Enantiomers
Mirror images. Chiral carbon. S = left enantiomer R = right enantiomer
36
Polymer formation/breakdown
Dehydration/condensation - Creation of polymer, generates water Hydrolysis - Breakdown of polymer, consumes water
37
Carbohydrates Function
``` Short & Long term energy - starch, glycogen, amylopectin Structural support - cellulose, chitin Precursors for other molecules - glucose Cell communication Cell identity - oligosaccharides ```
38
ATP
- adenosine triphosphae | - created by converting glucose through cellular respiration
39
Insulin Role
Attach to receptors on cell to order it to take in glucose
40
Diabetes Types
Type 1 - Pancreas doesn't produce insulin | Type 2 - Insulin receptors are damaged
41
Bond forming polysacchiride
Glycosidic linkage
42
Disaccharides
Sucrose -> Glucose + Fructose Maltose -> Glucose + Glucose Lactose -> Glucose + Galactose
43
Glycosidic linkage types
Starch -> 1 - 4 alpha, branching | Cellulose -> 1 - 4 beta, non-branching
44
Triglyceride Structure
Glycerol - (ester linkage) -> 3 fatty acid chains
45
Lipid Functions
``` Thermoregulation Store Energy Cell Membrane Protection from Dehydration Signaling Hormones Capture Light Energy - photosynthetic pigments Metabolic Processes - vitamins ```
46
Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats
``` Saturated: - no double bonds - higher melting point (more stackable) - animal + coconut oils Unsaturated: - double bonds (cis) - lower melting point - plant + fish oils Trans Unsaturated Fats: - synthetic - cannot be broken down in human body, can lead to atherosclerosis ```
47
Phospholipid Structure
- Phosphate -> Choline -> Glycerol -> 2 Fatty acid chains | - Amphipathic (phosphate hydrophilic, fatty acids hydrophobic)
48
Cholesterols in Blood
Does not dissolve in blood - transported by lipoproteins HDL - Good cholesterol, brings blood back to liver LDL - Bad cholesterol, brings from liver to blood, linked to atherosclerosis
49
Protein Functions
Enzymes, Defense, Structural, Hormonal, Metabolism, Contractile, Transport, Receptors
50
Amino Acids
- 20 different amino acids - 9 essential amino acids - forms polypeptides through peptide bonds - central carbon, amino, carboxyl, R group - all polypeptides have a direction
51
Protein Structure
1st - polypeptide chain 2nd - alpha helix or beta pleated sheet, due to h-bonds 3rd - shape due to h-bonds, hydrophobic interactions, disulphide bridges, ionic/covalent bonds 4th - more than one protein interacting together
52
Protein Folding Concepts
unfolding - denaturation assisted folding - chaperonin prion - misfolded protein, normally detrimental
53
Membrane Protein Functions
Transport - of molecules across membrane Enzyme activity Signal transduction - receptors or neurotransmitters or hormones Cell-cell recognition - ID tags Intercellular joining - to other cells Stabilization - attachment to extracellular matrix or cytoskeleton
54
GlycoX - Membrane
Glycolipids Glycoproteins Act as cell fingerprint, or for cell communication
55
Membrane Molecule Arrangement
- fluid mosaic - not static - a lot of lateral movement - flip flop is possible, but rare
56
Membrane Fluidity
- unsaturated hydrocarbons - more fluid | - cholesterol - less fluid at higher temp, more fluid at lower temp (buffer)
57
Membrane Synthesis
produced in ER modified in Golgi transported via vesicles to membrane inner side of vesicle -> extracellular side outer side of vesicle -> cytoplasmic side
58
Passive Transport
Movement along concentration gradient Diffusion: - small nonpolar molecules - easily - small polar molecules - with difficulty - charged particles - not at all, due to hydration shells Facilitated Diffusion: - polar or charged, use transport protein (highly specific) - channel protein, tunnels, can be gated (stimulus induced) - carrier proteins, shuttles Osmosis: - diffusion of water - can be aided by aquaporins
59
Tonicity
Characteristic of surrounding solution Hypertonic - crenate, shrivel Hypotonic - swell, lyse Isotonic
60
Active Transport
``` Pump against concentration gradient Requires energy (ATP) Ex: - Na/K pump - Proton pump ```
61
Bulk Transport
Exocytosis: - export molecules out of cell Endocytosis: - pinocytosis: engulf fluid - phagocytosis: engulf particle
62
Activation Energy
Initial investment of energy required for reaction to occur
63
Enzyme
- Enzymes lower activation energy by contorting molecule into unstable intermediate state - induced fit - Highly specific - Its target is called substrate - Has active site - Catalyses both forward/reverse direction
64
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Cofactors: metals, ions Coenzymes: organic molecules
65
Enzyme Inhibitors
Can be reversible or irreversible Reversible - competitive inhibitors, compete against active site Irriversible - noncompetitive inhibitors, binding to other part of enzyme, making it less effective
66
Enzyme Regulation
Option 1: switch gene on/off | Option 2: allosteric regulation - change enzyme shape to turn off/on, stabilizing active/innactive forms
67
Feedback Inhibition
Mechanism in which metabolic pathways are regulated | Produce becomes allosteric regulator of initial reactions

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