Exam 1 Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
Computerized Tomography (CT
A
an imaging technology in which computers are used to enhance x-rays
Can’t differentiate between living and dead brain (can’t look at brain activity)
2
Q
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
A
provides info regarding localization of brain activity
3
Q
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A
provides high resolution structural images
4
Q
Functional MRI (fMRI)
A
uses a series of MRI images taken a few seconds apart to assess activity in the brain
5
Q
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
A
- use of MRI technology to trace fiber pathways in the brain by tracking the flow of water
- Connectivity map
- Can’t tell direction of information flow
6
Q
Imaging methods vs Recording methods
A
Imaging methods: -CT -PET -MRI (fMRI) -DTI Recording methods: -EEG -ERPs -single cell recording -microdialysis
7
Q
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
A
an alteration in the EEG recoding produced in response to the application of a stimulus
8
Q
Single cell recording
A
the recording of the activity of single neurons through microelectrodes surgically implanted in the area of interest
9
Q
Microdialysis
A
assesses the chemical composition of a very small area of the brain
10
Q
Ablation
A
surgical removal of tissue
11
Q
Optogenetics
A
- genetic insertion of molecules into specific neurons that allows the activity of the neurons to be controlled by light
- Allows researchers to turn on specific neurons
- Much more precise than electrical stimulation
12
Q
Knockout gene
A
- gene used to replace a normal gene that does not produce the protein product of the normal gene
- Can be genetically modified
- Natural genetic mutations can have same effect
13
Q
Microtome
A
a device used to make very thin slices of tissue for histology
14
Q
Golgi stain
A
labels single neurons
15
Q
Nissl stain
A
labels population of cell bodies
16
Q
Immunohistochemistry (IHC)
A
process where antibodies are used to detect proteins in cells within in a tissue section
17
Q
Neuraxis
A
imaginary line that runs the length of the spinal cord to the front of the brain (bends in people)
18
Q
Sagittal section
A
parallel to midline
19
Q
Coronal/frontal section
A
parallel to face, perpendicular to midline
20
Q
Horizontal/transverse section
A
divides into top and bottom
21
Q
Central canal
A
small midline channel in spinal cord that contains CSF
22
Q
Cerebral aqueduct
A
connects third and fourth ventricle
23
Q
Flow of CSF
A
Lateral ventricles Third ventricle cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle cerebral canal
24
Q
12 cranial nerves
A
“On occasion our trusty truck acts funny good vehicle anyhow”
“Some say marry money but my brother says big brains matter more”
1) Olfactory
2) Optic
3) Oculomotor
4) Trochlear
5) Trigeminal
6) Abducens
7) Facial
8) Vestibulocochlear
9) Glossopharyngeal
10) Vagus
11) Spinal Accessory
12) Hypoglossal
25
Autonomic Nervous System
* Hypothalamus is key brain structure regulating the ANS
| * Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
26
Sympathetic NS
•Fight or flight
•Mobilizes energy stores
•Originates from its own part of the spinal cord
-Norepinephrine
•Axons from neurons in the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord (SC) communicate with the sympathetic chain (chain of cell bodies outside of the SC)
•Fibers from cells in sympathetic chain then communicate with target organs
27
Parasympathetic NS
•Rest and digest
•Conserves and restores energy reserves
•Originates from its own part of the brain and spinal cord
-Acetylcholine
•Originates from the brain and sacral divisions of the SC
•Travel some distance to locations near their target organs, where parasympathetic ganglia are located
•Not coordinated like sympathetic system
28
Enteric NS
* Division of ANS consisting of neurons embedded in the gastrointestinal system
* Some functions contribute to conscious sensations-pain, hunger, and satiety, but most is below level of consciousness
* Very complicated
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Nuclei
collection of neurons within CNS
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Tract
bundle of axons within CNS
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Ganglia
collection of neurons outside CNS
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Nerves
bundles of axons outside CNS
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Spinal cord
* Runs from medulla to 1st lumbar vertebrae
* Cervical nerves=8 (head, neck, arms)
* Thoracic nerves=12 (most of torso)
* Lumbar nerves=5 (lower back and lower neck)
* Sacral nerves=5 (legs and genitals)
34
Hindbrain
rhombencephalon-brainstem
| -includes myelencephalon (medulla) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
35
Midbrain
mesencephalon-brainstem
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Forebrain
prosencephalon
| -includes diencephalon and telencephalon
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Medulla
- plays important role in consciousness, arousal, movement, pain
- reticular formation: collection of brainstem nuclei important for arousal
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Pons
"bridge"
- connects medulla to higher brain structures
- cochlear nucleus
- vestibular nucleus=receives info about location and movement of head from inner ear
- raphe nucleus
- locus coeruleus
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Cerebellum
"little brain"
| coordinates voluntary movement, maintains muscle tone, regulates balance
40
Raphe nucleus
sleep, arousal, mood, appetite and aggression
| synthesizes serotonin
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Locus coeruleus
arousal, sleep, and mood
| synthesizes norepinephrine
42
Midbrain
- Tectum
- Tegmentum
- Cerebral aqueduct
- Periaqueductal gray (PAG)
- Red nucleus
- Substantia nigra
- Superior/inferior colliculi
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Tectum
- ceiling
| - houses superior/inferior colliculi
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Tegmentum
- covering
| - houses midbrain structures excluding colliculi
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Periaqueductal gray (PAG)
- area around cerebral aqueduct
| - sleep, complex movements, pain
46
Red nucleus
communicates motor info between spinal cord and cerebellum
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Substantia nigra
- movement
- degenerates in Parkinson's
- reward seeking behavior
- dopamine synthesis
48
Superior colliculi
- receives info from optic nerves leaving eye
| - guided movements (turning eyes in direction of visual stimulus)
49
Inferior colliculi
- involved in hearing
| - auditory reflexes (ex: turning head in direction of loud noise)
50
Forebrain
- diencephalon
- basal ganglia
- limbic system
- cerebral cortex
51
Diencephalon
Thalamus
- gateway to cortex
- receives sensory and regulatory info
- relays sensory info to cortex
Hypothalamus
- collection of nuclei
- major regulatory nucleus
- eating, drinking, sex, biorhythms, temperature control
52
Basal ganglia
- caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, nucleus accumbens
- selecting and enabling the execution of motor programs stored by cortex
- degenerates in Parkinson's and Huntington's
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Striatum
nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus and putamen
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Limbic system
- learning, motivated behavior, emotion
- hippocampus
- parahippocampal gyrus
- fornix
- mammillary bodies
- amygdala
- cingulate cortex
- septal area
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Hippocampus
learning and memory
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Parahippocampal gyrus
fold of tissue near the hippocampus
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Fornix
fiber pathway connecting hippocampus with the mammillary bodies, processing and memory
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Mammillary bodies
processing and memory
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Amygdala
connects stimuli to emotional meanings
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Cingulate cortex
exerts cognitive influence over emotion
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Septal area
reward
| lesions produce extreme rage
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Cerebral cortex
```
"bark", "outer shell"
6 layers of cortex
lots of fiber pathways (white matter)
sulci=valleys
gyri=hills
fissure=large sulcus
```
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Association cortex
area of cortex that serve as a bridge between areas that process sensory and motor info
association=connection
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Commissure
place where two things join
| -Ex: anterior commissure, corpus collosum
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Connectome
neurons in specific brain areas participate in neural circuits
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Macroglia
- astrocytes
- ependymal cells
- oligodendrocytes
- schwann cells
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Astrocyte
- responsible for structural support and control of extracellular chemical environment at synapse
- form close connections with capillaries allowing them to transfer nutrients to neurons
68
Ependymal cells
- line ventricles and central canal of spinal cord
| - hair-like cilia to move CSF and monitor its quality
69
Microglia
clean up debris
| when they detect damage, they travel to location and digest debris
70
Neural cytoskeleton
microtubule, neurofilament, microfilament
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Microtubule
largest type of fiber
| transports neurochemicals and other products to/from cell body
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Neurofilament
neural fiber responsible for structural support
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Microfilament
smallest fiber type
| thought to change the length and shape of axons and dendrites
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Anterograde transport
movement of materials from CELL BODY to AXON TERMINAL along microtubules
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Retrograde transport
movement of materials from axon terminal to cell body along microtubules
76
Electrostatic pressure
```
electrical gradient
opposites attract (negative charge attracted to positive charge)
```
77
Diffusion
concentration gradient
| diffuse from areas of high to low concentrations
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Propagation
replication of AP at unmyelinated sections of axon
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Saltatory conduction
movement of AP from one node of Ranvier to the next down the length of a myelinated axon
80
Gap junctions
neuron directly effects an adjacent neuron through the movement of ions from one cell to another
-distance is shorter and transmission is quicker than typical chemical synapses
81
Chemical synapse
messages are transmitted from one neuron to another by neurochemicals
- volume transmission
- wiring transmission
82
Volume transmission
- form of chemical synapse
| - neurochemicals diffuse through extracellular fluid/CSF to influence cells far away
83
Wiring transmission
- form of chemical synapse
| - chemicals diffuse from one cell to impact adjacent cell through localized channels
84
Autoreceptor
receptor site located on presynaptic neuron that provides info about the cell's own activity level
85
Recognition molecules
molecule within a receptor that binds to specific neurochemical (how receptors are specific to certain molecules)
-lock and key mechanism
86
Ionotropic receptor
ligand-gated ion channel
| -receptor protein in postsynaptic membrane in which recognition site is located on the same structure as the ion channel
87
Metabotropic receptor
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)
- protein embedded in postsynaptic membrane containing recognition site and G protein
- slower
- neurochemicals do not directly open ion channel
88
Neural integration
determination of whether to fire an AP based on summation of inputs to neuro
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Spatial summation
simultaneous stimulation of many presynaptic terminals (many terminals taking up space on neuron)
90
Temporal summation
repeated stimulation of one presynaptic terminal (happening over time, temporal=time)
91
Neuromodulator
chemical messenger that communicates with target cells more distant than the synapse by diffusing away from the point of release
92
Neurohormone
chemical messenger that communicates with target cells at great distance by traveling through the blood
93
Neurotransmitters (different types)
1) Acetylcholine
2) Monoamines
- Catecholamines (Epi, norepi, dopamine)
- Indolamines (serotonin, melatonin)
3) Histamine
4) Amino acid
- Glutamate
- GABA
5) Gas (Nitric acid (NO) is classic example)
94
Glutamate
- most common excitatory NT
- ionotropic or metabotropic receptors (Ex: NMDA, AMPA, kainate)
Glutamate-> GAD-> GABA
95
What is special about NMDA receptor?
- It's both voltage and ligand gated
| - glutamate has to bind to receptor AND there has to be sufficient depolarization before it responds
96
GABA
-most common inhibitory NT
97
GABA-A receptors
- allow Cl into neuron resulting in membrane hyperpolarization
- can bind with benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol (all of these supress nervous system activity by increasing inhibition produced by GABA)
98
GABA-B receptors
- GPCR
| - cause membrane hyperpolarization
99
Agonist
molecule that binds to and activates a receptor
100
Antagonist
a chemical that binds to a receptor and prevents its activation
Ex: SSRI (increases amount of serotonin in synapse by inhibiting reuptake)
101
Metabolic tolerance
organ systems become more effective at eliminating the drug (so body can get rid of drug quicker)
102
Functional tolerance
target tissue may alter its sensitivity to the drug by changing the number of receptors:
- Down-regulation in response to an agonist -> fewer receptors
- Up-regulation in response to an antagonist -> more receptors
103
Cross-tolerance
tolerance to one drug is generalized to other drugs in its class
104
Pharmacodynamics
deals with interaction between a drug and receptor
105
Binding affinity
degree of chemical attraction to receptor (potency)
106
Efficacy
actual degree of activity once ligand is bound to receptor
107
Pharmacokinetics
deals with distribution of drug into body
| -enter body, get to site of action
