anatomy
study of structure
systematic anatomy
study of structures that make up a discrete body system
physiology
study of function
standard anatomical position
standing facing forward, feet hip-width distance apart palms our, proper posture
anterior/ ventral
front
posterior/dorsal
back
superior
above/ towards head
inferior
medial
toward the midline
lateral
away from the midline
proximal
closer to the trunk
distal
farther from the trunk
superficial
more external
deep
more internal
Name the cross-sections
midsagittal
along midline
parasagittal
not along midline
cellular composition
made up of 1 or more cells
organization
display order and hierarchy
metabolism
internal chemical reactions
produces waster –> excretion
responsiveness
ability to sense and react to stimuli
movement
at all levels of organization
Developlment
change in form or function over an organism’s lifetimes
reproduction
formation of a new organism
Characteristics of Life
cellular composition
organization
metabolism
responsiveness
movement
development
reproduction
Levels of Body Organization
chemical level –> cellular level –> tissue level –> organ level –> organ system level
components of the integumentary system
skin, hair, nails
components of the skeletal system
bone and joints
Components of the muscular system
skeletal muscle and tendons
How would we best describe muscles in relation to skin?
deep to
components of the nervous system
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
components of endocrine system
endocrine glands ( pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, testes, ovaries)
component of the cardiovascular system
heart and blood vessels
component of the lymphatic system
lymph, vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus, bone marrow
component of the respiratory system
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, respiratory muscles
component of the digestive system
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs
components of urinary system
kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra
component of female reproductive system
ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
component of male reproductive system
penis, testes, epididymis, urethra, prostate gland
homeostasis
state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
Dynamic equilibrium
physiological conditions fluctuate around an average value
- Set point – physiological average
- Normal range – range of values around set point that are considered typical and healthy
Maintaining homeostasis requires the
ability to detect excessive change and active mechanisms to oppose it
Negative feedback loop (definition & process)
Def: •Mechanism that negates or reverses a deviation from the setpoint
Positive feedback loop
- Intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it
- Produces rapid change
- Requires definite end point
- Can be harmful if out of control
gradient
the difference in value between one point and another
matter and energy spontaneously flow ____ a gradient
down
Radiography (X-ray)
(use & reading [black & white])
- Used for:
- Identifying fractures
- Mammograms
- Chest examinations
Reading
black: air
white: bone
Ultrasound (Sonography)
Visualize: Developing embryos and fetuses; organ, soft tissues, etc.
Computed Tomography (CT)
•Visualizes: Hard and soft tissues, Bony defects, Tumors, Aneurysms, Cerebral hemorrhages, etc
Read: soft tissue: gray; bone: white
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Visualize: soft tissues and tumors
Read: soft tissue (gray) bone (black)
elements
- Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
- Body can’t make elements à must get them from environment
Elements in the Human body
Atoms
made up of proteins, neutrons, and electrons
smallest unit of matter that still retains unique properties
atomic #- number of protons in the nucleus
chemical bond
electrical attraction between atoms that holds them together
molecule
2 or more atoms bonded
compound
2 or more elements bonded
octet rule
an atom is most stable when it has eight electrons in its valance shell
A full valance shell is ____
nonreactive
Incomplete valance shell is
reactive
ionic bonds
•Transfer of electrons from one atom to another; Forms ions
ions
charged particles w/ unequal numbers of protons and electrons
cations
positively charged
anion
negatively charged
How strong is an ionic bond?
depends on the number of electrons transferred
covalent bond
- Electrons shared between atoms
- Stronger than ionic bonds
- Strength of bond depends on number of electrons shared
- Electronegativity – protons in nucleus attract electrons
- Equivalent electronegativity –> Nonpolar bond
- Unequal electronegativity –> Polar bond
polar molecules
- Shared electrons spend more time orbiting the more electronegative atom à creates dipole molecule
- Polar molecules attract other polar molecules and repel nonpolar molecules
Chemical reaction
process of forming or breaking a covalent or ionic bond
anabolic reactions
products created by forming new chemical bonds
catabolic reactions
larger molecules broken down into smaller ones
endergonic reactions
store energy; anabolic processes
exergonic reactions
release energy
catabolic reaction
Three types of energy in the human body
chemical, electrical, mechanical
can be converted into another
chemical energy
energy stored in molecular bonds
electrical energy
generated by movement of charged particles (flow of ions)
mechanical energy
transferred from one object to another to power moevment
Kinetic energy
the energy of motion i.e. muscle contraction
Potential energy
stored energy i.e. chemical bonds
energy is often lost as
heat
What kind of homeostatic process is shivering?
Negative feedback loop ?
Essential organic (3) and inorganic (3) molecules
inorganic: water, salts, acids & bases
organic: carbs, lipids, proteins
What is the purpose of water in the body?
- universal solvent
- primary means of transporting substance throughout the body
- able to ionize electrolytes (capable of conducting electricity)
- only dissolves hydrophilic molecules
- thermal stability (i.e. sweating)
- high density –> cushions and protects organs
describe the relationship: cohesions, adhesions, water
- Cohesion/adhesion – tendency of molecules to stick to each other/other molecules
- Cohesion provides surface tension
Adhesion allows for lubrication
Suspension
- liquid mixed with large solid particles
- Particles will eventually settle
- E.g. whole blood
colloid
- liquid mixed with small solid particles
- Particles remain suspended
- E.g. milk
Solution
- solid/gas dissolved in a liquid or 2 liquids combined
- Clear/translucent
- E.g. blood plasma
acids
releases H+ ion in water
bases
accept free H+ ion; typically OH-
What determines acidity?
H+ concentration in a solution determines the acidity
Represented by pH scale
exponential rather than linear
Buffer
a chemical system that resists changes in pH
weak acid+ weak base
electrolytes
- Cation + anion held together by ionic bonds
- Dissociate into ions in water
- Conduct electricity à important for nerve and muscle cell functioning
carbohydrates
- Carbo- –> carbon
- -hydrate –> water (H and O)
- Polar –> hydrophilic
- Functions: Energy; Structural components of DNA/RNA; Structural components of cells
lipids
- Fats and oils
- Nonpolar –> hydrophobic
- Can dissolve in/act as a solvent for other nonpolar compounds
- Functions:
- Energy
- Insulate and cushion organs
- Regulate body temperature
- Structural component of cell membranes
- Hormones/signaling molecules
Proteins
- Amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Can be polar or nonpolar
- Can form colloids
- Functions:
- structural` component of cells and tissues
- Membrane transport
- Hormones/signaling molecules and receptors
- Catalysts (enzymes)
What are the four general cell process?
metabolism; transport of substances, communication, reproduction
plasma membrane
flexible outer surface
- Barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) from the extracellular fluid (ECF)
- Selective permeability
- Communication
- Cell identification
cytoplasm
intracellular fluid containing organelles/
internal fluid, cytoskeleton, and organelles
•Internal fluid – cytosol
nucleus
DNA-containing control center
What is the plasma membrane made of?
phospholipid bilayer
- Phospholipid – phosphate group + 2 fatty acid chains à hydrophilic “head” with hydrophobic “tail”
- amphiphilic
- Fluidity of components allows for cell reproduction, transport of substances, etc.
- Creates fluid mosaic pattern
What components are in the plasma membrane?
- Membrane proteins
- Integral or peripheral
- Functions:
- Transport
- Communication
- Catalysts
- Recognition
- Support
- Other components
- Cholesterol – stabilizes membrane structure
- Glycocalyx
- Unique to individual organism and cell type –> cell recognition
cytoskeleton
- Provides an internal framework
- Provides stability to the plasma membrane
- Helps transport, position, and anchor organelles
- Aids cell division
ribosomes
- Synthesize proteins
- Free or membrane-bound
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- Smooth or rough
- Synthesize proteins, fats, hormones
- Calcium storage
lysosome
- Contain digestive enzymes
- Break down nutrients, old cell components
nucleus
- Contains DNA
- Site of RNA and ribosome synthesis
mitochondria
- Produce most of the body’s ATP
- Contain their own DNA
Golgi apparatus
Processes proteins and lipids from ER
Passive Transport
- Substances diffuse until equilibrium is reached à no energy needed
- Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or osmosis
Active transport
- Substances moved against concentration gradient à requires energy
- Primary/secondary active transport
- Vesicular transport
Simple diffusion
- Nonpolar, lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer
- E.g.: oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroid hormones, fatty acids
Facilitated diffusion
- Requires the involvement of membrane proteins
- Protein channels – usually specific to an individual solute
- Carrier proteins
- Uniporter – carries single solute
- Symporter – carries 2 solutes in the same direction
- Antiporter – exchanges 2 solutes
- E.g. glucose, amino acids, ions
Osmosis
- Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
- Flows along osmotic gradient
- Water diffuses across plasma membranes:
- Through aquaporins
- Directly through lipid bilayer
- Occurs until solute concentrations equalize
- Results in volume changes on both sides
Isotonic solution
Cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions (same solute/water concentration as inside cells; water moves in and out).
hypertonic solutions
Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink in a hypertonic solution (contains a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside the cells).
hypotonic solution
Cells take on water by osmosis until they become bloated and burst (lyse) in a hypotonic solution (contains a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes
than are present inside cells).
hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted on a membrane due to water volume (outward pressure)
osmotic pressure
force of solutes drawing water towards themselves (inward pressure)
Comparison of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure –> result
- Hydrostatic pressure = osmotic pressure à no net movement of water
- Hydrostatic pressure < osmotic pressure à water will move into cell
- Hydrostatic pressure > osmotic pressure à water will move out of cell
Primary active transport
- Uses energy to transport a molecule against its concentration gradient
- Enhances concentration gradient
- Important for nerve and muscle function
Secondary Active Transport
•concentration gradient created by primary active transport used to transport another molecule against its concentration gradient
- Primary active transport enhances concentration gradient of Substance 1
- Substance 1 allowed to passively move back into/out of cell
- Substance 2 co-transported against its concentration gradient
Phagocytosis
- Pseudopods flow around particle to be engulfed
- Form phagosome
- Phagosome merges with lysosome
- Contents are digested
- Phagosome receptors can bind to microorganisms/solid particles
- Important mechanism for immune system
Pinocytosis
- ECF brought into cell
- Main mechanism of nutrient absorption in small intestine
- No receptors –> nonspecific
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Receptors on cell surface bind specific substances
- Allows cell to ingest and concentrate target substances in vesicles
- Released inside cell
- Digested in lysosome
exocytosis
- Ejection of material from cell
- E.g. hormones, mucus, wastes
tissue
- Discrete population of related cells + extracellular matrix
- Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
epithelial tissue
- Sheets of cells covering body surfaces, lining cavities
- Glands – specialized epithelial tissue
- Main functions:
- Protection, sensory reception, absorption, filtration, secretion
connective tissue
- Cells scattered through the matrix
- Main functions: fill internal spaces, support other tissues, transport materials, store energy
Muscle Tissue
- Contractile cells
- Produce movement
- Skeletal, cardiac and smooth
Nervous Tissue
- Specialized for electrical conduction
- Generate, send, and receive information via electrical signals
tissue membrane
•Thin layer of tissue covering or lining a structure
Types of connective tissue membranes and location
- Capsular – cover organ surfaces
- Synovial – line joint cavities, produce synovial fluid
Epithelial tissue membranes and location
- Epithelium attached to connective tissue
- Mucous – line regions open to the environment, secrete mucous
- Serous – line body cavities, secrete serous fluid
- Cutaneous – i.e. skin
Functions of Epithelia
- Protection – from dehydration and damage
- Immune defense – blocks pathogens
- Secretion – releases substances
- Transport regulation – selectively permeable barrier
- Sensation – highly innervated
Features of Epithelia
Three types of cellular connections
tight junction, anchoring junctions, gap junctions
Tight junction
- Tightly interlocking integral proteins
- Make spaces impermeable
anchoring junctions
- More loosely interlocking integral proteins
- Stabilize tissues
Gap junction
Glands
Collection of cells that produce and release secretions
endocrine glands
- Ductless à secretions released into the circulatory system
- Secrete hormones
exocrine glands
- Secrete products via ducts for local use
- Usually multicellular
- Unicellular – goblet cells
Connective tissue composition
- Common embryonic origin: mesenchyme
- Composed of:
- Cells
- Protein fibers
- Collagen: tensile strength
- Elastic: stretch and recoil
- Reticular: support
- Ground substance
- ECF, proteins, carbohydrates
- Cushions and supports tissue
Protein fibers and ground substances make up the ECM
Function of Connective Tissue
1) Support
2) Protection
3) Transportation of fluids
4) Insulation
5) Energy storage
