Exam 1 Flashcards

(144 cards)

1
Q

anatomy

A

study of structure

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2
Q

systematic anatomy

A

study of structures that make up a discrete body system

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3
Q

physiology

A

study of function

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4
Q

standard anatomical position

A

standing facing forward, feet hip-width distance apart palms our, proper posture

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5
Q

anterior/ ventral

A

front

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6
Q

posterior/dorsal

A

back

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7
Q

superior

A

above/ towards head

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8
Q

inferior

A
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9
Q

medial

A

toward the midline

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10
Q

lateral

A

away from the midline

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11
Q

proximal

A

closer to the trunk

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12
Q

distal

A

farther from the trunk

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13
Q

superficial

A

more external

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14
Q

deep

A

more internal

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15
Q

Name the cross-sections

A
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16
Q

midsagittal

A

along midline

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17
Q

parasagittal

A

not along midline

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18
Q

cellular composition

A

made up of 1 or more cells

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19
Q

organization

A

display order and hierarchy

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20
Q

metabolism

A

internal chemical reactions

produces waster –> excretion

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21
Q

responsiveness

A

ability to sense and react to stimuli

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22
Q

movement

A

at all levels of organization

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23
Q

Developlment

A

change in form or function over an organism’s lifetimes

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24
Q

reproduction

A

formation of a new organism

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25
Characteristics of Life
cellular composition organization metabolism responsiveness movement development reproduction
26
Levels of Body Organization
chemical level --\> cellular level --\> tissue level --\> organ level --\> organ system level
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components of the integumentary system
skin, hair, nails
28
components of the skeletal system
bone and joints
29
Components of the muscular system
skeletal muscle and tendons
30
How would we best describe muscles in relation to skin?
deep to
31
components of the nervous system
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
32
components of endocrine system
endocrine glands ( pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, testes, ovaries)
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component of the cardiovascular system
heart and blood vessels
34
component of the lymphatic system
lymph, vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus, bone marrow
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component of the respiratory system
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, respiratory muscles
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component of the digestive system
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs
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components of urinary system
kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra
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component of female reproductive system
ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
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component of male reproductive system
penis, testes, epididymis, urethra, prostate gland
40
homeostasis
state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
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Dynamic equilibrium
physiological conditions fluctuate around an average value * Set point – physiological average * Normal range – range of values around set point that are considered typical and healthy
42
Maintaining homeostasis requires the
ability to detect excessive change and active mechanisms to oppose it
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Negative feedback loop (definition & process)
Def: •Mechanism that negates or reverses a deviation from the setpoint
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Positive feedback loop
* Intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it * Produces rapid change * Requires definite end point * Can be harmful if out of control
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gradient
the difference in value between one point and another
46
matter and energy spontaneously flow ____ a gradient
down
47
Radiography (X-ray) | (use & reading [black & white])
* Used for: * Identifying fractures * Mammograms * Chest examinations Reading black: air white: bone
48
Ultrasound (Sonography)
Visualize: Developing embryos and fetuses; organ, soft tissues, etc.
49
Computed Tomography (CT)
•Visualizes: Hard and soft tissues, Bony defects, Tumors, Aneurysms, Cerebral hemorrhages, etc Read: soft tissue: gray; bone: white
50
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Visualize: soft tissues and tumors Read: soft tissue (gray) bone (black)
51
elements
* Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties * Body can’t make elements à must get them from environment
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Elements in the Human body
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Atoms
made up of proteins, neutrons, and electrons smallest unit of matter that still retains unique properties atomic #- number of protons in the nucleus
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chemical bond
electrical attraction between atoms that holds them together
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molecule
2 or more atoms bonded
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compound
2 or more elements bonded
57
octet rule
an atom is most stable when it has eight electrons in its valance shell
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A full valance shell is \_\_\_\_
nonreactive
59
Incomplete valance shell is
reactive
60
ionic bonds
•Transfer of electrons from one atom to another; Forms ions
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ions
charged particles w/ unequal numbers of protons and electrons
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cations
positively charged
63
anion
negatively charged
64
How strong is an ionic bond?
depends on the number of electrons transferred
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covalent bond
* Electrons shared between atoms * Stronger than ionic bonds * Strength of bond depends on number of electrons shared * Electronegativity – protons in nucleus attract electrons * Equivalent electronegativity --\> Nonpolar bond * Unequal electronegativity --\> Polar bond
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polar molecules
* Shared electrons spend more time orbiting the more electronegative atom à creates dipole molecule * Polar molecules attract other polar molecules and repel nonpolar molecules
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Chemical reaction
process of forming or breaking a covalent or ionic bond
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anabolic reactions
products created by forming new chemical bonds
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catabolic reactions
larger molecules broken down into smaller ones
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endergonic reactions
store energy; anabolic processes
71
exergonic reactions
release energy catabolic reaction
72
Three types of energy in the human body
chemical, electrical, mechanical can be converted into another
73
chemical energy
energy stored in molecular bonds
74
electrical energy
generated by movement of charged particles (flow of ions)
75
mechanical energy
transferred from one object to another to power moevment
76
Kinetic energy
the energy of motion i.e. muscle contraction
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Potential energy
stored energy i.e. chemical bonds
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energy is often lost as
heat
79
What kind of homeostatic process is shivering?
Negative feedback loop ?
80
Essential organic (3) and inorganic (3) molecules
inorganic: water, salts, acids & bases organic: carbs, lipids, proteins
81
What is the purpose of water in the body?
- universal solvent - primary means of transporting substance throughout the body - able to ionize electrolytes (capable of conducting electricity) - only dissolves hydrophilic molecules - thermal stability (i.e. sweating) - high density --\> cushions and protects organs
82
describe the relationship: cohesions, adhesions, water
* Cohesion/adhesion – tendency of molecules to stick to each other/other molecules * Cohesion provides surface tension Adhesion allows for lubrication
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Suspension
* liquid mixed with large solid particles * Particles will eventually settle * E.g. whole blood
84
colloid
* liquid mixed with small solid particles * Particles remain suspended * E.g. milk
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Solution
* solid/gas dissolved in a liquid or 2 liquids combined * Clear/translucent * E.g. blood plasma
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acids
releases H+ ion in water
87
bases
accept free H+ ion; typically OH-
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What determines acidity?
H+ concentration in a solution determines the acidity Represented by pH scale exponential rather than linear
89
Buffer
a chemical system that resists changes in pH weak acid+ weak base
90
electrolytes
* Cation + anion held together by ionic bonds * Dissociate into ions in water * Conduct electricity à important for nerve and muscle cell functioning
91
carbohydrates
* Carbo- --\> carbon * -hydrate --\> water (H and O) * Polar --\> hydrophilic * Functions: Energy; Structural components of DNA/RNA; Structural components of cells
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lipids
* Fats and oils * Nonpolar --\> hydrophobic * Can dissolve in/act as a solvent for other nonpolar compounds * Functions: * Energy * Insulate and cushion organs * Regulate body temperature * Structural component of cell membranes * Hormones/signaling molecules
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Proteins
* Amino acids linked by peptide bonds * Can be polar or nonpolar * Can form colloids * Functions: * structural` component of cells and tissues * Membrane transport * Hormones/signaling molecules and receptors * Catalysts (enzymes)
94
What are the four general cell process?
metabolism; transport of substances, communication, reproduction
95
plasma membrane
flexible outer surface ## Footnote * Barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) from the extracellular fluid (ECF) * Selective permeability * Communication * Cell identification
96
cytoplasm
intracellular fluid containing organelles/ ## Footnote internal fluid, cytoskeleton, and organelles •Internal fluid – cytosol
97
nucleus
DNA-containing control center
98
99
What is the plasma membrane made of?
phospholipid bilayer ## Footnote * Phospholipid – phosphate group + 2 fatty acid chains à hydrophilic “head” with hydrophobic “tail” * amphiphilic * Fluidity of components allows for cell reproduction, transport of substances, etc. * Creates fluid mosaic pattern
100
What components are in the plasma membrane?
* Membrane proteins * Integral or peripheral * Functions: * Transport * Communication * Catalysts * Recognition * Support * Other components * Cholesterol – stabilizes membrane structure * Glycocalyx * Unique to individual organism and cell type --\> cell recognition
101
cytoskeleton
* Provides an internal framework * Provides stability to the plasma membrane * Helps transport, position, and anchor organelles * Aids cell division
102
ribosomes
* Synthesize proteins * Free or membrane-bound
103
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
* Smooth or rough * Synthesize proteins, fats, hormones * Calcium storage
104
lysosome
* Contain digestive enzymes * Break down nutrients, old cell components
105
nucleus
* Contains DNA * Site of RNA and ribosome synthesis
106
mitochondria
* Produce most of the body’s ATP * Contain their own DNA
107
Golgi apparatus
Processes proteins and lipids from ER
108
Passive Transport
* Substances diffuse until equilibrium is reached à no energy needed * Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or osmosis
109
Active transport
* Substances moved against concentration gradient à requires energy * Primary/secondary active transport * Vesicular transport
110
Simple diffusion
* Nonpolar, lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer * E.g.: oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroid hormones, fatty acids
111
Facilitated diffusion
* Requires the involvement of membrane proteins * Protein channels – usually specific to an individual solute * Carrier proteins * Uniporter – carries single solute * Symporter – carries 2 solutes in the same direction * Antiporter – exchanges 2 solutes * E.g. glucose, amino acids, ions
112
Osmosis
* Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane * Flows along osmotic gradient * Water diffuses across plasma membranes: * Through aquaporins * Directly through lipid bilayer * Occurs until solute concentrations equalize * Results in volume changes on both sides
113
Isotonic solution
Cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions (same solute/water concentration as inside cells; water moves in and out).
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hypertonic solutions
Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink in a hypertonic solution (contains a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside the cells).
115
hypotonic solution
Cells take on water by osmosis until they become bloated and burst (lyse) in a hypotonic solution (contains a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside cells).
116
hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted on a membrane due to water volume (outward pressure)
117
osmotic pressure
force of solutes drawing water towards themselves (inward pressure)
118
Comparison of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure --\> result
* Hydrostatic pressure = osmotic pressure à no net movement of water * Hydrostatic pressure \< osmotic pressure à water will move into cell * Hydrostatic pressure \> osmotic pressure à water will move out of cell
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Primary active transport
* Uses energy to transport a molecule against its concentration gradient * Enhances concentration gradient * Important for nerve and muscle function
120
Secondary Active Transport
•concentration gradient created by primary active transport used to transport another molecule against its concentration gradient 1. Primary active transport enhances concentration gradient of Substance 1 2. Substance 1 allowed to passively move back into/out of cell 3. Substance 2 co-transported against its concentration gradient
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Phagocytosis
* Pseudopods flow around particle to be engulfed * Form phagosome * Phagosome merges with lysosome * Contents are digested * Phagosome receptors can bind to microorganisms/solid particles * Important mechanism for immune system
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Pinocytosis
* ECF brought into cell * Main mechanism of nutrient absorption in small intestine * No receptors --\> nonspecific
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis
* Receptors on cell surface bind specific substances * Allows cell to ingest and concentrate target substances in vesicles * Released inside cell * Digested in lysosome
124
exocytosis
* Ejection of material from cell * E.g. hormones, mucus, wastes
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tissue
* Discrete population of related cells + extracellular matrix * Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
126
epithelial tissue
* Sheets of cells covering body surfaces, lining cavities * Glands – specialized epithelial tissue * Main functions: * Protection, sensory reception, absorption, filtration, secretion
127
connective tissue
* Cells scattered through the matrix * Main functions: fill internal spaces, support other tissues, transport materials, store energy
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Muscle Tissue
* Contractile cells * Produce movement * Skeletal, cardiac and smooth
129
Nervous Tissue
* Specialized for electrical conduction * Generate, send, and receive information via electrical signals
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tissue membrane
•Thin layer of tissue covering or lining a structure
131
Types of connective tissue membranes and location
* Capsular – cover organ surfaces * Synovial – line joint cavities, produce synovial fluid
132
Epithelial tissue membranes and location
* Epithelium attached to connective tissue * Mucous – line regions open to the environment, secrete mucous * Serous – line body cavities, secrete serous fluid * Cutaneous – i.e. skin
133
Functions of Epithelia
* Protection – from dehydration and damage * Immune defense – blocks pathogens * Secretion – releases substances * Transport regulation – selectively permeable barrier * Sensation – highly innervated
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Features of Epithelia
135
Three types of cellular connections
tight junction, anchoring junctions, gap junctions
136
Tight junction
* Tightly interlocking integral proteins * Make spaces impermeable
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anchoring junctions
* More loosely interlocking integral proteins * Stabilize tissues
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Gap junction
139
Glands
Collection of cells that produce and release secretions
140
endocrine glands
* Ductless à secretions released into the circulatory system * Secrete hormones
141
exocrine glands
* Secrete products via ducts for local use * Usually multicellular * Unicellular – goblet cells
142
Connective tissue composition
* Common embryonic origin: mesenchyme * Composed of: * Cells * Protein fibers * Collagen: tensile strength * Elastic: stretch and recoil * Reticular: support * Ground substance * ECF, proteins, carbohydrates * Cushions and supports tissue Protein fibers and ground substances make up the ECM
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Function of Connective Tissue
1) Support 2) Protection 3) Transportation of fluids 4) Insulation 5) Energy storage