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exam 1, week 2 Flashcards

1
Q

fertilization occurs in

A

ampulla

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2
Q

general timeline

A

Day 1- zygote
Day 2- 2 blastomeres
Day 3- about 8 cells, end of synchronous division
Day 4- Morula
Day 5-6- blastocyte,
then hatching of zona pellucida-> late blastocyte, where every it is, it will attach
Day 6-8- implantation
Day 10: embryonic cells fill in the layer between trophoblast and yolk sak/amniotic cavity
Day12: chorionic cavity develops within extraembryonic mesoderm
Day 13: yolk sak divides into primary and seonddary umbilical vesicle
Day 14- chorionic cavity isolate embryo, connecting stalk formed

review pictures

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3
Q

blastomeres

A

First 2 cells after first cleavage

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4
Q

Morula

A

ball of 16 cells, made after 4 consecutive sets of division, still in zona pellucida (day 3-4)

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5
Q

blastocyst

A

cells in morula shrink leaving spaces due to getting rid of excess storage in the cytoplasm. Cell migrate to the edge allowing morula to shrink (day 4-5)

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6
Q

Trophoblast layer

A

outer edge of cells, become placenta

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7
Q

Embryooblast

A

inner cell becomes embryo

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8
Q

Blastocyst cavity

A

open space

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9
Q

further development

A

o Early hypoblast forms, otherwise undifferentiated embryoblast
o Blastocystic cavity-> exocelomic cavity
o Embryoblast-> epiblast
o Hypoblast-> exocelomic membrane
o Amniotic cavity is formed (later becomes yolk sak)
o Cytotrophoblast (cellular layer), synctyiotriphoblast (contacts maternal blood stream for nutrients and immunoresponse)
o Bilaminar disc embryo- epiblast and hypoblast
Day 10- embryonic cells fill in the layer between trophoblast and yolk sak/amniotic cavity, extra-embryonic mesoderm forms
o Chorionic cavity develops by cavitation within extraembryonic mesoderm (chroionic membrane (somatropleuric layer) and exocoelomic (splanchnopleuric or Heuser’s) Membrane)
o Yolk sak divides to primary umbilical vesicle and secondondary umbilical
o Chorionic cavity isolates embryo, connecting stalk formed

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10
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

development of zygote without fertilization, oocytes will divide

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11
Q

Cloning-

A

for stem cell research, for reproductive and therapeutic purposes

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12
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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13
Q

white matter

A

myelinated axon tracts, relays info

on the outside of spinal cord and inside of brain

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14
Q

gray matter

A

cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated, neurolgia, blood

inside of spinal, inside brain

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15
Q

myelin made in CNS

A

oligodendrocytes

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16
Q

myeline made in PNS

A

schwann cells

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17
Q

PNS

A

peripheral nerves, cranial nerves (12 pairs), spinal nerves (31 pairs)
Collection of PNS cell bodies is a ganglion

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18
Q

peripheral nerves

A

bundles of axons and supporting neuroglia

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19
Q

dorsal rami

A

supply veretabral joints, deep back muscles, skin of back

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20
Q

ventral rami

A

supply the rest of the muscles, many plexuses

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21
Q

SNS

A

somatic, voluntary

2 branches
general motor (efferent)
general sensory (afferent)
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22
Q

motor pathway

A

2-3 neurons

upper motor neuron
interneuron (sometimes)
lower motor neuron

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23
Q

sensory pathway

A

cell bodies are in dorsal root ganglion

3 neurons

1st order- to spinal cord or brain
2nd order to thalamus
3rd order to cerebral cortex

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24
Q

ANS

A 
2 branches
1. visceral motor efferent (sympathetic/parasympathetic)
goes to smooth muscle
2. visceral sensory (afferent),
cell bodies in doral root
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25
how many nerves at each level
cervical 8 nerves, 7 vertebrate over until C8 T12 L5 S5 coccylgeal
26
ANS
motor sympathetic vs parsympatetic 2 neuron systems preganglonic postganglionic
27
sympathetic neuron
short, long synapse in ganglion root
28
parasympathetic
long, short synapse in wall of target
29
Sympathetic nerves
Lateral nerves only exist at T1-L2, only place with sympathetic cell bodies Sympathetic nerves must travel up or down sympathetic chain
30
Rami communicans
White- on to ventral rami (only on T1-L2) | Gray- off to ventral rami (along entire spinal cord) superior to white
31
sympathetic to head
Sympathetic to head: up the chain, synapse in closest cervical ganglia To throax- chain off gray rami communicans to closet ganglia to organ To abdomen- 3 neurons greater, lesser, and least thoracic splanchnic nerves to preaortic ganglia (in front of aorta), also lumbar splanchnics To pelvis- sacral splanchnics
32
3 options for sympathetic pathways
1. Synapse at same level and exit into ventral rami 2. Travel in chain, synapse at another level, exit into ventral rami, 3. Travel through chain without synapsing, exit on splanchnic to preaortic ganglia, synapse and go to organ (splanchnic nerve)
33
Parasympathetic (cranial sacral)
Only derive from cranial serves 3,7,9,10 and from sacral spinal cord S2-4 Ex vagus nerve Pelvic splanchnic nerves- carry parasympathetic fibers
34
Dermatomes
spinal level of sensation, area of skin where all cutaneous fibers track back to the same spinal level Can’t be dissected
35
Cutaneous nerves
sensory nerves, carry axon, can be multiple spinal levels and contribute to multiple dermatomes
36
derm vs cutaneous nerve
Derm, cutaneous- have different patterns Derm- trace back to 1 level, fuzzy borders Cutaneous- trace back to a nerve, ex entrapments
37
myotome
muscles that spinal nerves innervate
38
Isomers
same chemical formula, different congiburation
39
epimer
molecules that differ in arrange at a single carbon example galatose and glucose at C4 glucose and mannose at C2
40
enantiomers
mirror images example D-glucose and L-glucose
41
cyclization
linear to cyclic, a new asymmetric carbon is made ex: D-glucose to alpha D glucopyranose (6 C ring) D-fructose to alpha D fructofuranose (5 C ring)
42
cylicization creates alpha vs beta
anomers alpha OH below beta OH above interconvert by mutaroation, determines bonding
43
lactose
galactose beta 1-4 glucose
44
sucrose
glucose alpha 1-2 fructose
45
maltose
glucose alpha 1-4 glucose
46
isomaltose
glucose alpha 1-6 glucose
47
glycogen
D glucose polymer alpha 1,4 linear change alpha 1,6 branch points
48
starch
D glucose polymer amylose: unbranched alpha 1,4 glucose bonds amylopectin: alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 glucose bonds
49
cellulose
D glucose polymer beta 1,4 bonds non digestible fibers
50
what is the significance of isomers
Isomers dictate the type of bonding and physical processing | Enzymes create or digest bonds that are specific for a type of bond
51
``` define specificity affinity capacity hormonal regulation ``` in terms of transporters
Specificity- what does it transport Affinity- high affinity- active at low fasting and high fed, low affinity active at high fed Capacity- low capacity- easily saturated Hormonal regulation- ex insulin dependent transporters
52
Basal glucose uptake
constant supply of glucose
53
Glut 1 and 3
high affinity, low capacity, red blood cells and brain, constant glu supply, uptake is independent of concentration
54
Glut 2
low affinity, high capacity, liver and pancreas, equilibrium of intracellular glu with blood glu concentrations
55
Glut 4
GLUT 4- insulin dependent uptake after meal, high affinity, important for lowering blood glu levels, insulin increases the number of receptor on cell surface, in muscle or adipose tissue
56
sources of glucose for glycolysis
Sources from glycogenolysis in exercising muscle Dietary intake of carbs Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver
57
glucokinase vs hexokinase
Glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase or glucokinase, uses 1 ATP, irreversible Glucokinase- in liver and pancreas, high Km (low affinity), high Vmax, more active in fed state, inducible by insulin Hexokinase- everywhere else, low Km (high affinity for glucose), low Vmax, more active in fasting state, allosterically inhibited by glucose-6P
58
know all of glycolysis
AHHHHHH
59
aerobic glycolysis
glucose -> 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH (NADH to ECT, pyruvate to AcCoA to TCA)
60
anaerobic glycolysis
glucose-> 2 lactate, 2 ATP NO NADH, lactate cannot be converted to AcCoA, cannot enter TCA cycle
61
pyruvate kinase regulators allosteric and hormonal
Pyruvate kinase allosteric regulators: Inhibited by ATP Activated by fructose 1,6-BP Pyruvate kinase hormonal regulators: ONLY occurs in LIVER Glucagon inactivates pyruvate kinase via phosphorylation (directs PEP to gluconeogenesis)
62
PFK-1 inhibtors allosteric hormonal how it relates to PFK 2
PFK-1: Inhibited by ATP and citrate Activated by AMP and fructose 2,6 BP PFK 1 vs 2 pathway (2 goes to fructose 2,6 BP) Hormonal regulation: Insulin activates PFK-2 Glucagon activates f-2,6-Bpase Looks at pics
63
Describe how pyruvate kinase deficiency results in hemolytic anemia.
Low pyruvate kinase leads to decreased ATP production This impairs stability of RBCs-> change in cell shape -> echinocytes (Burr cells)-> cell lysis -> nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia
64
malate-apspartate shuttles vs glyceral 3-phosphate
NAD/NADH vs FAD/FADH2 recycling
65
GLUT 5
transports fructose from blood into cells
66
3 types of artifacts
- reverberation artifact (A lines) - Mirror-image - Acoustic shadowing artifact
67
anechoic
dark (no gray), | ex blood vessel
68
hypoechoic
dark gray
69
hyperechoic
bright white
70
linear probe
``` high frequency (5-12) good for arteries, veins, thyroid, lymph, skin, nerves) ```
71
Phased Array (ECHO) probe
rectangular, low frequency good for heart, lungs, thorax
72
curvilinear
low frequency | good for gallbladder, liver, kidney, spleen, bladder, abdomen, uterus/ovaries
73
intracavitary
low or high frequency | good for uterus/ovaries, pharynx, oral, rectal
74
2 axis
long axis- longitudinal, sagittal plane short- transverse axis
75
RNA polymerase in Euks vs Ecoli
E coli- has 1 type of RNA s unit binds directly to promotor Euks pol 1- rRNA pol 2- mRNA pol 3- tRNA brought to RNA via transcription factors
76
2 RNA inhibitors
Rifampin- bacteria alpha- amanitin- euk
77
Rifampin
antibiotic bacterial RNA polymerase inhibitor, binds b subunit and blocks the path of nascent RNA. Mutations in b subunit prevent rifampin binding
78
alpha amanitin
poisonous mushroom | a-amanitin binds to the largest subunit of eucaryotic RNA polymerase
79
The presence of nucleus in eucaryotic cells uncouples
translation from transcription
80
mRNA editing
Euk mRNAs are modified by addition of a 7-methyl guanosine cap at the 5’-end and a polyA tail at the 3’-end. Following their modifications, these mRNAs are subjected to splicing.
81
mRNA splicing
Splicing involves spliceosomes (ribonucleoproteins), conserved 5’-splice (donor), branch and 3’-splice (acceptor) sites that facilitate transesterification
82
alternative splicing example
calcitonin and CGRP synthesis
83
tRNA processing
tRNAs are processed by ribozyme RNAse P, endonuclease and ligase
84
rRNA processing
on the other hand, are processed by chemical modifications and cleavage of a large precursor RNA
85
RNA editing examples
Same pre-mRNA leads to two apolipoprotein B100 and B48. Apolipoprotein B48 arises due to editing of CAA to UAA, a stop codon
86
transcription factors
bind to promoter for basal transcription
87
Pit 1 and Prop 1
Pit 1- regulates growth hormone Prop 1- regulates Pit 1 Both are transcription factors. When mutated it leads to GH deficiency
88
Huntington protein
Brain dervived neurotrophic factor (BDNT) Normal huntingon gene- REST is bound, can make NRSE-> BDNT occurs Mutant huntington- REST is loose -> represses NRSE-> no BDNF- death or neurols

ISOM (9 decks)

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