Exam #2 Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
What are the types of bone?
A
- compact bone
- spongy (cancellous) bone
- long
- short
- irregular
2
Q
What type of bone is trabecular?
A
Cancellous (spongy) bone
3
Q
What does long bone consist of?
A
*Epiphysis (proximal and distal)
* Diaphysis
*Articular cartilage
*Spongy bone
*Medullary cavity
*
4
Q
on the proximal and distal ends of long bone
A
epiphysis
5
Q
Articular cartilage equals
A
hyaline cartilage
6
Q
remains of the epiphyseal plate
A
Epiphyseal line
7
Q
the shaft of long bone
A
diaphysis
8
Q
Spongy bone:
A
red bone marrow (site of blood formation)
9
Q
The diaphysis of the long bone includes:
A
- Medullary cavity- (yellow marrow, blood vessels, fat, nerves)
- Endosteum- (membrane lines marrow cavity)
- Periosteum- (membrane that covers diaphysis, contains osteoblasts, and build/repair bone)
10
Q
bone cells trapped in lacunae
A
Osteocytes
11
Q
small channels and passageways in the bone that allow gases, nutrients, and removal of wastes to and from osteocytes.
A
Canaliculi
12
Q
a canal that runs vertically (up/down) through the core containing small blood vessels, nerve fibers, as well as lymphatic vessels
A
Central (Haversion) Canal
13
Q
What are central canals lined with?
A
Endosteum
14
Q
a canal that runs horizontally (side/side) and connects the blood, lymphatic, and nerve supply of the periosteum to those in the central canals.
A
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
15
Q
- the external surface of the entire bone
- fibrous layer
- osteogenic layer
A
Periosteum
16
Q
Fibrous layer:
A
- outer layer
* dense connective tissue
17
Q
Osteogenic layer:
A
- inner layer
* consists of bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) and bone-destroying cells (osteoclasts)
18
Q
Long bones:
A
- a bone that has a shaft and two ends
* all limb bones except the ankle, wrist, and kneecap
19
Q
Short bones:
A
- bones that are cubed shape
* wrist and ankle bones
20
Q
Flat bones:
A
- bones that are thin, flattened, and usually curved
* sternum, scapular, ribs, most skull bones
21
Q
Irregular bones:
A
- bones that are shaped funny
* vertebrae and hip bones
22
Q
Sesamoid bone:
A
- a special type of short bone that is formed into a tendon
* patella (kneecap)
23
Q
the functional unit of compact bone
A
osteon
24
Q
formation of bone (replacement of connective tissue by bone)
A
Bone Ossification
25
Intramembranous:
* bone forms from simple connective tissue
| * Ex. skull, clavicle, lower jar
26
Endochondrial (most prevalent):
* bones form from cartilage
| - most bone
27
allows growth in bone length to continue
| chondrocytes divide
Epiphyseal plate
28
Epiphyseal growth:
* new bone added
* new bone is spongy bone
* marrow cavity established
29
Transformation zone:
* old cells enlarge and die
| * calcium deposited in the matrix
30
Osteogenic zone:
*bone replaces cartilage
31
ongoing replacement of old bone tissue with new bone (osteoblasts/osteoclasts)
Remodeling
32
a type of dense connective tissue
cartilage
33
what is cartilage covered by
perichondrium (dense irregular fibrous membrane)
34
Interstitial growth:
chondroblasts in immature cartilage divide and form small groups of cells which produce the matrix to become separated from each other by a thin partition of the matrix
35
Calcium:
* Element critical to many body functions
- nerve transmission
- blood clotting
- muscle contraction
- many enzymes are used as cofactors
36
What are the most important calcium hormones?
* parathormone
* calcitriol
* calcitonin
37
Parathormone:
* produced by parathyroids
* raise blood calcium levels
* increase osteoclast activity, decrease the loss of calcium and urine, production of calcitriol
38
Calcitriol:
* produced in the kidneys
* activate vitamin D
* raise blood calcium levels
* decrease the loss of calcium in the urine and increase absorption in the digestive tract
39
Calcitonin:
* produced in the thyroid gland
* lowers blood calcium levels
* inhibits osteoclasts
40
Hormones that stimulate muscle growth:
* Calcitriol
* Growth hormone
* Thyroxin
* Estrogens
* Testosterone
* Insulin
41
What type of cartilage is found in the trachea?
hyaline cartilage
42
Joints:
Site of contact between:
- two bones
- bone and cartilage
- bone and gums
43
joints that have no movement
Synarthroses
44
joints that are slightly moveable
Amphiarthroses
45
joints that are freely moveable
Diarthroses
46
Cartilagenous Joints:
- no cavity
- cartilage
- little to no movement
47
Cartilagenous Joint Types:
- symphyses
| - synchondroses
48
Fibrous Joints:
- no cavity
- fibrous connective tissue
- little to no movement
49
Fibrous Joint Types:
- sutures
- gomphoses
- syndesmoses
50
Synovial Joints:
- cavity
- ligaments
- permit movement
51
Synovial Joint Types:
- plane
- hinge
- pivot
- condyloid
- saddle
- ball of socket
- knee
52
Sutures:
- skull
- joint of thin fibrous connective
- saw tooth articulation
- no movement (synarthroses)
53
Gomphoses:
- teeth in jaw
- peg roots of tooth
- socket: boney cavity
- periodontal ligaments: join tooth to socket
- no movement
54
Syndesmoses:
- tibiofibular joint
- extra fibrous tissue
- some movement (amphiarthritic)
55
Symphyses:
- vertebrae
- pubic bones
- joint is a broad flat disc of fibrocartilage
- stabilized by ligaments
- amiphiarthrotic)
56
Synchondroses:
- epiphyseal plate
- first rib
- joint:hyaline cartilage
- no movement
57
Synovial Joint:
- Plane: vertebrae, carpal/tarsal joints
- Hinge: elbow and interphalangeal joint
- Pivot: axis and dens radioulnar joint
- Condyloid: radiocarpal (wrist), metacarpophalangeal (knuckles) joint
- Saddle: carpometacarpal joint of thumb
- Ball & Socket: shoulder and hips
- Knee: femoropatellar joint, medial and lateral tibiofemoral joint
58
Fibrous Capsule:
- surrounds joint
- dense connective tissue
- strength and flexibility
- joins periosteum
59
Bursa:
- sacs with synovial membranes
- between bones/muscles and bones/skin
- reduce friction
60
Meniscus:
- pads of cartilage
- functions
* shock absorbers
* modify the shape of articulating bones so they fit
* add stability
61
Synovial fluid:
cushions the ends of bones and reduces friction when you move your joints
62
Joint Disorders:
* Dislocations (fingers/shoulders)
* Osteoarthritis
* Rheumatoid Arthritis
63
Osteoarthritis (non-inflammatory):
- articular cartilage deteriorates-spurs
| - big joints first wear and tear
64
Rheumatoid Arthritis:
- autoimmune
- inflammation of the synovial membrane (destroys cartilage)
- small joints first
- feed collagen
65
What are the 3 muscle types?
- skeletal muscle
- cardiac
- smooth
66
What are the functions of muscle?
- movement
- opening and closing
- stabilizing and containing
- temperature control (85% body heat)
67
Muscle characteristics:
- Excitability
* responds to stimuli
* produces an electric charge
- Contractility (shortens)
- Extensibility (stretches)
- Elasticity
68
what are muscles made up of?
fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers)
69
between the muscle fibers
Endomysium
70
- surrounds functional groups
| - attaches to bone or tendons
Deep fascia
71
surrounds individual muscle
Epimysium
72
surrounds fascicles
Perimysium
73
the cell membrane of the muscle surrounded by basement membrane and endomysial connective tissue.
Sarcolemma
74
- the longitudinal parallel (rod-like) contractile elements of a muscle cell that are composed of myosin and actin.
- tubes inside myofilaments
Myofibrils
75
- one of the individual filaments of actin or myosin that make up a myofibril
Myofilaments
76
What are the 3 myofilaments?
* Thin-ACTIN
* Thick-MYOSIN
* Elastic-TITIN
77
THIN (Actin):
* 300-400 molecules
| * myosin-binding site
78
Tropomyosin:
blocks binding sites
79
Troponin:
moves tropomyosin
80
THICK (Myosin):
* 500 molecules
| * two heads and a tail
81
ELASTIC (Titin):
binds thick filaments to Z disc
82
region of myofibril between two Z discs
Sarcomere
83
Sarcomere bands:
- A Band
- H Zone
- I Band
- Z Disc
- M Line
84
length of thick filament-overlap
A Band
85
just thick filament-no overlap
H Zone
86
thin filament only-no overlap
I Band
87
ends of sarcomeres
Z Disc
88
middle of thick
M Line
89
Which sarcomere band disappears during contraction?
H Zone
90
Sarcomere during contraction:
- Actin filaments drawn together
- H zone disappears
- I band disappears
- Z discs moves together
- A band does not change
91
Steps in Muscle Contraction:
- Motor neuron fires (wave of electricity down neuron, muscle cell stimulated)
- Wave of electricity travels along muscle cell
- Electricity travels along muscle cell
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca++
- Ca++ diffuses through the cytoplasm
- Ca++ binds to troponin
- Triggers a contraction
92
Where the neuron or nerve cell meets a muscle cell
Neuromuscular junction
93
end of the axon that contacts the muscle cell
Axon terminal
94
feet on the end of the axon terminal
End bulbs
95
- inside the bulbs
| - filled with ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)
Synaptic vesicles
96
Stimulation of Muscle Contraction:
1. Wave of electricity goes down the motor neuron
2. Reaches synaptic end bulbs
3. Opens Ca++ gates and Ca++ moves to the end bulb
4. Vesicles open and release Ach
5. Ach diffuses across the cleft
6. Ach binds to receptor sites on the sarcolemma
7. Opens ion gates in the sarcolemma
8. cause a wave of electricity to pass over to the muscle cell
9. causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca++
97
Muscle Contraction Filaments:
- Ca++ binds to troponin (pushing tropomyosin off of actin's myosin-binding sites
- Myosin activated by ATP (myosin head interacts with actin)
- Process repeats until all of the Ca++ is gone
98
Muscle Recovery:
- Acetycholinesterase breaks down Ach
- Ca++ moves into SR by active transport
- Filaments unbind and slide back into the resting position
99
a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it goes to
Motor unit
100
What happens when a motor neuron fires?
All of the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract at the same time
101
Strength of contraction equals:
the number of motor units activated
102
motor neurons that innervate relatively few muscle fibers and form motor units that generate small forces (fingers, eyes)
small motor neurons
103
motor neurons that innervate larger, more powerful motor units (back, legs, postural muscles)
large motor neurons
104
the amount of tension generated by a muscle
Muscle tension
105
Factors determining muscle tension:
- frequency of stimulation
- number of fibers (cells) contracting
- length of sarcomeres
106
Frequency of stimulation:
- the greater the frequency of neuronal stimulation
| - the more forcefully a muscle will contract
107
response of a motor unit to a single stimulus
Twitch
108
two or more stimuli applied in a short period of time
Tetanus
109
Frequency of muscle stimulation:
- the greater the frequency of neuronal stimulation
| - the more forcefully a muscle will contract
110
Elements of a twitch:
* Latent period: Ca++ released from SR
* Contraction period: filaments slide together
* Relaxation period: Ca++ actively transported back into SI
* Refractory period: muscle cannot respond again after stimulation, skeletal muscle 5mse.., cardiac muscle 30m
111
- slow rate
| - muscle partially relaxes between stimuli
Incomplete Tetanus
112
- no relaxation between stimuli
| - addition of extra Ca++
Complete Tetanus
113
What happens when more muscle fibers are contracting?
the greater the force of the contraction
114
Does the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit change?
No
115
What happens when the motor unit is stimulated?
all of its associated fibers will contract. The more stimulated motor units, the stronger the contraction, and the larger the motor unit that is stimulated (a nerve connecting to numerous muscle fibers) the greater the contraction
116
All or none principle:
when a neuron stimulates the muscle cells in its motor unit all individual fibers either contract fully (threshold stimulus or not at all (subthreshold)
117
Length of a sarcomere:
* Max Tension: perfect overlap of filaments
* Too much stretch: fewer cross-bridges make contact, force of contraction decreases
* Too little stretch: binding sites blocked
118
the amount of tension (or resistance to movement) in muscles
Muscle tone
119
Decrease in muscle size
* lack of nerve stimulation
* loss of myofibrils
* muscle replaced by fibrous tissue
Atrophy
120
Increase in muscle tissue
* increased myofibrils, mitochondria, SR
* caused by forceful or repetitive activity
Hypertrophy
121
Energy for contraction (Muscle Metabolism):
A) direct phosphorylation (coupled reaction of creatine phosphate and ADP)
B) Anaerobic mechanism (glycolysis and lactic acid formation
C) Aerobic mechanism (aerobic cellular respiration)
122
Whereby ATP is needed for muscle contraction and it can come from either:
1. Muscles Storage – Creatine Phosphate
2. glucose/fatty acids making ATP :
Anaerobically- 2 ATP’s
Aerobically- 36 ATP’s, but 2 are used in the process, so 34 ATP’s in Total
123
Creatine Phosphate:
* Muscles store extra phosphates for ATP as Creatine Phosphate
* Transfers high energy phosphate back to ADP very rapidly
* Fuel used only for muscle contraction
* Lasts 15 seconds
124
Needs of muscle for cell respiration:
* Oxygen
* Glucose
* Phosphates
125
Muscles store extra oxygen for cell respiration as
Myoglobin
126
Muscles store glucose for cell respiration as
Glycogen
127
Muscle Fatigue:
Lactic acid accumulates in muscles and liver
*disrupts enzymes
*disrupts cell respiration
ATP supplies run down
128
3 types of muscle fibers:
* Slow oxidative fibers
* Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers
* Fast Glycolytic fibers
129
Slow Oxidative Fibers:
* small, least powerful
* slow-twitch 100-200msec
* resist fatigue
130
Fast Oxidative Fibers:
* intermediate-sized
* fast-twitch 100 msec
* moderately resistant to fatigue
131
Fast Glycolytic Fibers
* largest, most powerful
* large amounts of glycogen-ATP by glycolysis
* Fast
* Fatigue
132
When the tension generated by a muscle holding a weight is:
* Less than a weight- the weight will drop
* Same as a weight- weight won't move
* More than the weight- the weight will rise
133
Isometric Contraction:
* muscle does not shorten
* no movement
* tension increases
134
Isotonic Contraction:
* muscle shortens or lengthens
* there is movement
* tension is constant
135
2 types of Isotonic Contractions:
* Concentric contractions
| * Eccentric contractions
136
* tension exceeds the resistance
* weight is lifted
* muscle shortens
Concentric contractions
137
* tension is less than resistance
* weight is lowered
* muscle elongates
Eccentric contractions
138
a structure that moves on a fulcrum
Lever
139
First-class lever:
fulcrum between effort and load (neck joint)
140
Second class lever:
* resistance between fulcrum and load
* strong but slow
* not thought to be found in the human body
141
Third class lever:
* effort between fulcrum and load
* elbow joint
* fast but less force
* most common
