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Microbiology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Disinfection of living tissue using a chemical agent. Safe on skin, could be alcohol, hydrogen peroxide

A

Antisepsis

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2
Q

Reduce the number of pathogens to meet public health standards

A

Sanitization

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3
Q

Use of heat to reduce the # of spoilage organisms in food or beverages

A

Pasteruization

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4
Q

3 modes of actions of microbrial control agents? How do they kill microbes?

A
  1. Alters membrane permeability
  2. Denatures proteins by disrupting 3d structure so that proteins cannot function
  3. Damages nucleic acids: DNA + RNA
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5
Q

Destroying microbes on inanimate objects or surfaces

A

Disinfecting

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6
Q

Killing any and all microbes

A

Sterilization

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7
Q

What is that action to bacteria and cells from radiation?

A

Damages nucleic acids

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8
Q

3 examples of using heat to denature protein + kill

A
  1. Bacticinerator
  2. Dry heat/hot air
  3. Moist heat
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9
Q

Examples of moist heat

A

Holding method (62.9 C for 30 min)
Flash method (71.6 C for 15 sec)
Ultra high temp method (140 C for 3 sec)

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10
Q

What type of heat is from an autoclave? 121 C at 15 lbs of pressure for 15 min

A

Moist heat + pressure

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11
Q

What are the two type of radiation?

A

Ionizing and non-ionizing

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12
Q

Examples of ionizing radiation and what it can be used on

A

-Gamma + X-rays
-Can preserve food
-Can be used on protein-based drugs
-Vaccines
-Plastic instruments

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13
Q

Examples of non-ionizing radiation and what is can be used on

A

-UV light (mismatch nucleotides)
-Used in OR, Morgues, and Labs

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14
Q

What is the action of osmosis on bacteria?

A

Shrivels or burst the microbe
High sure or salt water osmose OUT of the cell

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15
Q

What is the action of filtration on bacteria?

A

Pores in filter that trap microbes.
-Surgical maskm HEPA filters in heating + AC
-Some drugs get filtered

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16
Q

What is the action of cold on bacteria?

A

Slows growth, metabolism, and reproduction

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17
Q

Lyothalization

A

Removes water under a vaccum and decreases metabolism in bacteria

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18
Q

Action of of Phenols + Phenol derivatives

A

Alters membrane permeability and denatures proteins

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19
Q

Phenol…

A

Poor solubility
Is caustic to skin
Can damage CNS
Stinks

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20
Q

Action of aldehydes

A

Denatures proteins

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21
Q

Types of aldehydes

A

Formaldehyde
Formalin
Glutaraldehyde
OPA

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22
Q

What is the action of surfactants?

A

Mechanical removal of microbes

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23
Q

The action of hydrogren peroxide?

A

Free radicals -OH are toxic and damage cells by stealing electrons

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24
Q

Alexander Flemming

A

Left streak plate open + mold got into it.
Antibiotics were discovered

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25
Q

Define antibiotic

A

A substance naturally produced by a few bacterial and fungal species that inhibits or kills bacteria

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26
Q

Antibiotics only kill what?

A

Bacteria

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27
Q

Five target of antibiotics

A
  1. Bacterial cell wall
  2. Disrupting/disorganizing membranes
  3. Nucleic acid synthesis
  4. Block protein synthesis
  5. Metabolic pathways
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28
Q

What did we use before antibiotics?

A

Enema, blood-curdling ice baths, deadly starvation, bloodletting

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29
Q

Who discovered antibiotics?

A

Alexander Flemming

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30
Q

Bacterial DNA is super-coiled via an enzyme called _________

A

Gyrase

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31
Q

What is the shape of the bacterial chromosome?

A

Circle

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32
Q

How many chromosomes do bacteria usually have?

A

2

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33
Q

A plasmid carries essential information

A

False

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34
Q

Plasmids have to replicate when the bacterial chromosome replicates

A

False, it replicates independently

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35
Q

A small, circular DNA separate from the bacterial DNA is a(n)

A

Plasmid

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36
Q

The monomer of nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

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37
Q

Nucleotides are composed of

A

sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

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38
Q

The nitrogenous bases in DNA are

A

Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine

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39
Q

How many strands does DNA contain?

A

2

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40
Q

The building block of nucleic acids is glycerol and fatty acids

A

False (nucleotides)

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41
Q

The specificity of DNA is in the

A

Order of the nucleotides

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42
Q

The building block or monomer of DNA and RNA is

A

Nucelotides

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43
Q

The sugar in DNA is

A

Deoxyribose

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44
Q

A _ is a specific sequence of nucleotides that codes for a protein or RNA

A

Gene

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45
Q

DNA is a nucleic acid

A

True

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46
Q

A _____ is the entire genetic complement of a cell or virus

A

Genome

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47
Q

The sugar in RNA is

A

Ribose

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48
Q

Nitrogenous bases in RNA are

A

Adenine
Uracil
Cytosine
Guanine

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49
Q

What are the three types of RNA?

A

Transfer, messenger, and ribosomal RNA

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50
Q

How many strands does RNA have?

A

1

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51
Q

One strand (the 5’ or five prime strand) has

A

A terminal phosphate group

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52
Q

The other strand (the 3’ or three prime strand) has a

A

Terminal hydroxyl group

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53
Q

Acts as a go between between DNA and protein

A

Messenger (mRNA)

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54
Q

Ribosomes along with proteins are what RNA is made of

A

Ribosomal (rRNA)

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55
Q

Transfers amino acids

A

Transfer (tRNA)

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56
Q

An enzyme called ________ unwinds and unzips the DNA at the ori site

A

Helicase

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57
Q

_______ adds complementary nucleoties in the 5’ > 3’ direction

A

DNA Polymerase

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58
Q

The strand that is replicated continuously is called

A

The leading strand

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59
Q

The DNA strand that’s replicated in fragments is known as

A

Okazaki fragments

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60
Q

What are Okazaki fragments knitted(seal) together by?

A

DNA Ligase

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61
Q

What direction does DNA polymerase make strands in?

A

5’ > 3’

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62
Q

The process of DNA being converted to mRNA is known as

A

Transcription

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63
Q

The process of mRNA being converted to protein is known as

A

Translation

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64
Q

moves along the DNA strand that is serving as the template and adds complementary nucleotides and builds the mRNA strand (transcription)

A

RNA Polymerase

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65
Q

Transcription occurs in ______ of prokaryotic cell

A

Cytoplasm

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66
Q

Transcription takes place in the ______ in eukaryotic cell

A

Nucleus

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67
Q

In transcription _____ is transcribed into _____

A

DNA, mRNA

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68
Q

How many DNA strands serve as a template in transcription?

A

1

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69
Q

Action of alcohol on bacteria

A

Damages membranes and denatures proteins

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70
Q

The action of gaseous sterilizer on bacteria

A

Denatures protein

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71
Q

Action of hydrogen peroxide on bacteria

A

Free radicals are toxic and damage cells by stealing electrons

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72
Q

Water disinfection

A

Ozone

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73
Q

Halogens actions on bacteria

A

Denatures proteins

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74
Q

Heavy metals on bacteria

A

Denatures proteins

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75
Q

What does drying do to bacteria?

A

Decreases metabolism

76
Q

List what chemicals sterilize

A

Aldehydes, Gaseous Sterilizers, and Chlorine Dioxide by denaturing proteins

77
Q

Contribution of Paul Ehrlich

A

Synthesized compound salvarson 606 which is an antimicrobial drug. Gave this to syphillis patients. All his compounds contained phenol and arsenic

78
Q

Contribution of Gerhard Domagk

A

Created antimocrobial drug in form of red dye called Prontosil. Used against strep, staph, mice

79
Q

Contribution of Alexander Flemming

A

Did research on staphylococcus and streak plate became contaminated. ID’d mold as Penicillium and tried to isolate Penicillin

80
Q

Contribution of Howard Florey + Ernstchain

A

Chemists that isolated penicillin and was used to treat people very quickly

81
Q

Contribution of Selman Waksman

A

Soil microbiologist that discovered 20 diff antibiotics. First to call “Antibiotics” what they’re called now

82
Q

5 targets of antibiotics

A
  1. Bacterial CELL WALL
  2. Disrupt MEMBRANES
  3. NUCLEIC-ACID synthesis
  4. Block PROTEIN synthesis
  5. METABOLIC pathways
83
Q

Targets of bacterias effectiveness on Gram+ and Gram -: Bacterial cell wall

A

Effective against GRAM +
Not effective against Gram - (outer membrane protects underlying cell wall)

84
Q

Targets of bacterias effectiveness on Gram+ and Gram -: Bacterial cell wall

A

Effective against GRAM +
Not effective against Gram - (outer membrane protects underlying cell wall)

85
Q

Targets of bacterias effectiveness on Gram+ and Gram -: Disrupts membranes

A

Effective against GRAM - (disrupts outer membrane)
Not effective against Gram + (thick cell wall blocks access to cell membrane)

86
Q

Targets of bacterias effectiveness on Gram+ and Gram -: Nucleic-acid synthesis

A

Effective against both + and - gram baceria

87
Q

How do bacteria resist antibiotics?

A
  1. Produce ENZYMES that destory antib.
  2. Decrease entry of antibiotic alter MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
  3. PUMPS OUT
  4. Alter TARGET SITE
  5. Changes METABOLIC PATHWAYS
88
Q

How do bacteria ACQUIRE resistance?

A

Mutation
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation

89
Q

The process of DNA being converted to mRNA is known as

A

transcription

90
Q

The process of mRNA being converted to protein is known as

A

translation

91
Q

Where does TRANSLATION occur?

A

Cytoplasm in both euk. and prok.

92
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Site of protein synthesis

93
Q

Prokaryotes have what kind of ribosomes?

A

70s

94
Q

Eukaryotes have what kind of ribosomes?

A

80s

95
Q

Where does TRANSCRIPTION occur in prokaryotes?

A

Cytoplasm

96
Q

Where does TRANSCRIPTION occur in eukaryotes?

A

Nucleus

97
Q

The process of converting DNA to mRNA

A

Transcription

98
Q

A ______ is 3 nucleotides on mRNA

A

Codon

99
Q

Each codon specifies an

A

amino acid

100
Q

More than one codon encodes for the same amino acid

A

True

101
Q

The genetic code is redundant or degenerate. This means that

A

More than one codon encodes for the same amino acid

102
Q

Can be used to cut a human gene out human DNA.

A

Restriction enzymes

103
Q

We then insert the human gene into the plasmid and knit the DNA together using

A

DNA Ligase

104
Q

Is used to produce human proteins including insulin, clotting factors, interferon, and growth hormone.

A

Recombinant DNA technology

105
Q

Since the two DNA strands run __________the strands will have to be copied slightly differently.

A

Anti-parallel

106
Q

DNA replication then proceeds _________
around the circular bacterial chromosome

A

Bi-laterally/directionally

107
Q

Chemical and physical agents that control the growth of microorganisms that have an action of denaturing proteins include all the following EXCEPT

A

Radiation
Hydrogen peroxide
Cold
Drying
Osmosis
Filtration
Surfactants

108
Q

Flow of information is a cell proceeds from DNA to Protein to mRNA

A

False

109
Q

Which of the following is NOT an action of chemical or physical agents that control the growth of microorganisms?
Damage nucleic acids
Alteration of membrane permeability
Block protein synthesis
Damage nucleic acids

A

Block protein synthesis

110
Q

Which of the following is an action of a narrow spectrum antibiotic?
inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis
Inhibition of essential metabolites
Inhibition of protein synthesis
inhibition of cell wall synthesis

A

inhibition of cell wall synthesis

111
Q

Hydrogen peroxide is ONLY effective against obligate aerobes

A

False

112
Q

The DNA samples are digested with a restriction enzyme this is called

A

RFLP or restriction fragment length polymorphism.

112
Q

The DNA samples are digested with a restriction enzyme this is called

A

RFLP or Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism.

113
Q

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to

A

multiply DNA

114
Q

What are the 5 targets of antibiotics?

A
  1. Protein synthesis
  2. Nucleic acid synthesis
  3. Cell wall
  4. Membrane
  5. Metabolism
115
Q

4 ways antibiotics acquire resistance

A

Mutation
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation

116
Q

5 ways bacteria resist antibiotics

A
  1. Pump antibiotic out
  2. Change target site
  3. Produce enzymes
  4. Decrease entry (membrane)
  5. Change metabolic pathway
117
Q

Contribution of Paul Ehrlich

A

Created Compound Salvarson 606 which was an antimicrobial drug
Created magic bullet

117
Q

Contribution of Paul Ehrlich

A

Created Compound Salvarson 606 which was an antimicrobial drug
Created magic bullet

118
Q

Contribution of Gerhard Domagk

A

Created a synthetic antimicrobial drug called Prontosil

119
Q

Contribution of Alexander Fleming

A

Left streak plate + mold got into it. Mold was penicillium. Antibiotics were discovered

120
Q

Contribution of Howard, Florey, and Ernst Chain

A

Were able to isolate penicillium
Made penicillin readily available quickly

121
Q

Selman Waksman

A

Soil microbiologist, found 20 different antibiotics

122
Q

Section of DNA that contains one or more structural genes along with a regulatory gene that controls transcription of the structural gene(s).

A

Operon

123
Q

The ________ gene of an operon is always transcribed + translated

A

Regulatory Gene

124
Q

The product of the regulatory gene is a

A

Repressor protein (can be active or inactive)

125
Q

What happens when repressor protein binds to operator site?

A

Blocks RNA polymerase so structural genes are not transcribed and translated

126
Q

Order of sections in an operon

A

DNA Regulatory gene [promoter, operator, structural genes]

127
Q

What happens when the repressor protein binds to the operator site?
When it doesn’t bind?

A

Blocks RNA polymerase so structural genes are not transcribed and translated
RNA polymerase can transcribe + translate structural genes

128
Q

Environmental structure is in the environment and inactivates repressor protein by attaching to it and structural genes will be made

Repressor protein is always active when structure is not in the environment

A

Lactose Operon “induce operon”

128
Q

Environmental structure activates Repressor protein by attaching to it to block transcription and translation of structural genes

When environmental structure isn’t in the environment, Repressor protein is inactive and the structure is naturally made in our body

A

Tryptophan Operon

129
Q

When there is no tryptophan in the environment, the repressor protein is…

A

Inactive so RNA polymerase can transcribe and translate the tryptophan structural gene
OPERIN IS “ON”

130
Q

When there is tryptophan in the environment, the repressor protein is…

A

Activated by the tryptophan in the environment and stops natural transcription of tryptophan because its plentiful in environment (turkey day)
OPERON IS “OFF”

131
Q

Permanent change in an organisms DNA

A

Mutation (1 mut per 1 bil replic.)

132
Q

Permanent change in an organisms DNA

A

Mutation (1 mut per 1 bil replic.)

133
Q

Ex of mutagens:

A

Exposure to UV
Xrays
Gamma rays
Benzopyrene

134
Q

Mutations can be

A

Beneficial
Harmful
Neutral (3rd wobble)

135
Q

Repair mechanism for mutation:

A

DNA polymerase proofreads and repairs as it copies DNA

136
Q

Cancer causing agent

A

Carcinogen

137
Q

3 Mechanics of Genetic Recombination

A

Transformation (recip. takes donor dna)
Transduction (bacteriophage)
Conjugation (pili sex)

138
Q

Griffiths Experiment

A

Took 2 strains of Streptococcus pneumonia:
“S strain”: smooth, capsule caused pneumonia
“R strain”: rough, no capsule, no pathogenic

139
Q

Conclusion of Griffiths experiment

A

Genetic recombination
Injecting heat treated “S strain” alone didnt cause pneumonia

Injecting both heat treat “S Strain” and regular “R Strain”: R strain transformed into S strain by picking up lysed S DNA

140
Q

Who identified transforming factor as DNA

A

Avery McCloud and McCarty

141
Q

Transfer and integration of DNA from lysed donor bacterium to recipient bacterium
Discovered by Frederick Griffith

A

Transformation

142
Q

Limitations of transformation

A

Only competent bacteria can take up DNA (less than 1% is naturally competent )

143
Q

Transfer and integration of donor bacterium via using bacteriophage

A

Transduction

144
Q

Limitations to transduction

A

Bacterioaphage has to effect donor + recipient bacteria
Same genus + species
Virus + host cell specificity

145
Q

In prokaryotes DNA replication occurs ________ from a single point (the origin of replication or ori site).

A

Bi-directionally

146
Q

Bacteria are used to produce human proteins including insulin, clotting factors, interferon, and growth hormone

A

True

147
Q

The restriction enzyme BAMHI cuts all human DNA into the same number of fragments

A

False

148
Q

Polymerase Chain Reactino is used to multiply RNA

A

False (used to multiply DNA)

149
Q

Bacteria is the most common vector used in gene therapy

A

False

150
Q

In most gene therapy studies, a _______ gene is inserted into the genome to replace an ________ disease-causing gene

A

Normal
Abnormal

151
Q

Used to determine if a chemical is a mutagen of Salmonella.
Has to do with His - and His + Salmonella

A

The Ames Test

152
Q

Transfer and integration of donor bacterium DNA into recipient bacterium by cell-to-cell contact (sex) (pili)

A

Conjugation

153
Q

Who discovered Transformation?

A

Frederick Griffith, lab studied pneumonia (R) + (S)

154
Q

Who identified transforming factor as DNA

A

Avery McCloud + McCarty

155
Q

Virus that infect bacteria

A

Bacteriophage

156
Q

Steps in transduction:

A
  1. Phage attaches to RECEPTOR
  2. Phage ENTER bacteria. Donor DNA is DEGRADED
  3. Phage DNA uses donor cell machinery to produce PHAGE COMPONENTS
  4. ASSEMBLY of PROGENY PHAGE
  5. Donor bacterium is LYSED, and progeny phages are RELEASED + donate DONOR bacterium to the RECIPIENT. (TRANSDUCTION OCCURS)
157
Q

Steps in F+ and F- Conjugation

A
  1. F+ (D) attaches to F- (R) bacterium via PILI
  2. ONE strand of F+ PLASMID DNA is transferred to the F- using the PILUS
  3. Recipient bacterium makes ONE COMPLIMENTARY F PLASMID strand to match it and now both are F+
158
Q

Steps in HFR x F- Conjugation

A
  1. F+ cell’s plasmid INTEGRATES into chromosome by recombination and turns to HFR
  2. HFR and F- Cells join via pilus
  3. PORTION (1/2) of F plasmid trailing WITH CHROMOSOMAL DNA goes into recipient
  4. Donor chromosome+plasmid DNA is integrated into the F- chromosome but recipient bacterium is STILL F-
159
Q

Are ubiquitoius and not cells

A

Viruses

160
Q

Why are viruses not cells?

A

They do not fulfil the characteristics of life

161
Q

How small are viruses?

A

Need EM to see them at 250,000x

162
Q

What does it mean when we say viruses are OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR

A

It means that the viruses must go inside a host cell to produce progeny like parasites

163
Q

What are the viral components?

A
  1. NUCLEIC ACID (viral genome)
  2. CAPSID (protein coat)
  3. Sometimes have VIRAL ENVELOPE (animals virsues)
164
Q

What viruses have a viral envelope (sometimes)?

A

Animal viruses

165
Q

How do viruses acquire envelopes?

A

From host cell during viral replication

166
Q

What does HELICAL shaped viruses look like?

A

Spiral - capsid determines shape (rabies, ebola)

167
Q

What does ICOSAHEDRAL look like?

A

aka Polyhedral = Spherical (herpes, polio)

168
Q

What do COMPLEX viruses look like?

A

NOT helical or icosahedral (bacteriophage, smallpox, influenza)

169
Q

What are 2 ways of viral replication?

A

Lytic (T4 bacteriophage+ E. Coli B)
Lysogenic (Lambda + E. Coli X)

170
Q

Steps in LYTIC Replication:

A
  1. ATTACHMENT: receptor specificity
  2. ENTRY: BYOE (lysozyme) on cell envelope, injects nucleic acid (2 strands of DNA)
  3. SYNTHESIS: lysozyme breaks done host DNA. uses host cell machinery
  4. ASSEMBLY: nucleic acid inserted in capsid to build viral progeny
  5. RELEASE: lysozyme comes back and lyses the cell
171
Q

3 Entryways for ANIMAL Viral Replication

A
  1. Direct Penetration (some non-enveloped)
  2. Membrane Fusion (some enveloped)
  3. Endocytosis (most enveloped + some non-enveloped)
172
Q

Steps in ANIMAL Viral Replication:

A
  1. Attachment: same; spikes increase attachement
  2. Entry: 1 of the 3 ways
  3. Synthesis: same; some are Retro Viruses (uses Reverse Transcriptase to turn into DNA)
  4. Assembly: same
  5. Release: Non-enveloped: progeny extruded via exocytosis > causes lysis in host
    Enveloped: progeny extruded via exocytosis but take host cell membrane as their envelope > causes lysis
173
Q

What do anti-viral drugs target?

A

ESAR
-Block ENTRY
-Block SYNTHESIS
-Prevent ASSEMBLY
-Prevent RELEASE

174
Q

How do viruses + cancer contribute to each other?

A

Viral infection contributes to about 15-20% of all human cancers

175
Q

Animal Viruses that can go latent:

A

HPV
Varicella-Zoster Virus (chx pox_
Herpes

176
Q

Reactivation (inducing) factors in latent viruses

A

-Stress
-Increase in age
-Another infection
-UV light

177
Q

Multiple Hit Hypothesis

A

-Takes multiple hits to cause cancer
-Virus = 1 hit
-Genetics, lifestyle…

178
Q

How do some viruses contribute to cancer?

A

Virus inserts its DNA into human DNA, it then alters genes/proteins related to cell division

179
Q

Gene that when activated transforms a normal cell into a cancer cell

A

Oncogenes

180
Q

Proteinaceous infectious particle

A

Prion

181
Q

What do prions do?

A

A protein that goes into your brain and unfolds proteins + refolds incorrectly
>Has a long incubation period
>Effects memory, coordination, balance

182
Q

Prion brain disease:

A

Sponges = SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY

183
Q

Animal Prion Diseases

A

-Mad cow
-Chronic wasting disease (deer)
- Scrapie (sheep)

184
Q

Human Prion Diseases

A

-CJ disease
-Kuru (ingesting dead brain)
-Fatal familial insomnia

Microbiology (8 decks)

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