Exam 2 Flashcards by Unknown Unknown

Intact fossil

forms when decomposition does not occur and the organic remains are preserved and intact

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Compression fossil

forms when sediments accumulate on top of the organism and become cemented into the rock

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What must occur for fossil creation?

organisms must die in an environment where they are buried rapidly and decompose slowly

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Habitat bias

Organisms that live in areas where sediments are actively being deposited are much more likely to form fossils. Burrowing organisms are already underground at death and are therefore much more likely to fossilize.

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Taxonomic + tissue bias

Organisms with hard parts are most likely to leave fossil evidence. Similarly, some tissues fossilize more readily

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Temporal bias

Recent fossils are much more common than ancient fossils.

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Abundance bias

The fossil is weighted toward common species.

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Precambrian

Interval between the formation of Earth (4.6bya) and the appearance of most animal group (541mya)

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Phanerozoic era

The interval between (541mya) and today

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Paleozoic

-appearance of most major animal lineages + ends with the obliteration of almost all multicellular life
-initial diversification of animals, land plants, + fungi
-appearance of land animals

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Mesozoic

-begins with extinction + ends with extinction of the dinosaurs (except birds)
-gymnosperms were dominant on land
-dinosaurs were dominant vertebrates

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Cenozoic

-flowering plants dominate land
-birds and mammals dominate vertebrates

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What is the order of the 3 phases of the phanerozoic era?

Paleozoic –> Mesozoic –> Cenozoic

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Adaptive radiation

when a single lineage rapidly develops many different lineages with different adaptations for different niches

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The Cambrian Explosion

a massive explosion of life that included soft-bodied animals diversifying to include hard-bodied animals

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What are two of the main theories surrounding the Cambrian explosion?

-an increase in O2 in the Earth’s atmosphere
-Hox genes allowed the rapid development and inheritance of many genes that code for complex traits

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Mass extinctions

result from extraordinary, sudden, & temporary changes in the environment.

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Background extinctions

occur when normal environmental change, emerging disease, predation pressure, or competition reduces certain populations to zero.

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Cast fossil

forms when a buried organism decomposes, leaving an empty cavity in the sediments that fills with dissolved minerals and hardens into an accurate cast of the remains (ie. shells)

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Permineralized fossil

forms when organisms decompose extremely slowly. dissolved minerals gradually infiltrate the interior of the cells and harden into stone (ie. petrified wood)

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Trace fossil

forms when sedimentation and mineralization preserve indirect evidence of an organism in an environment (ie.footprints, burrows, feeding marks, feces)

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What are the two prokaryotic domains?

bacteria + archaea

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Who proposed the 3 domain tree of life?(current theory)

Woese

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Bacteria has ____ type(s) of RNA polymerase, which consists of ___ subunits.

1, 5

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Archaea has ____ types(s) of RNA polymerase, which consists of ____ subunits. It is similar to ______ in _______.

1, 13 -RNA polymerase II, eukaryotes

Do bacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls?

yes

Do archaea have peptidoglycan in their cell walls?

Do bacteria have histones associated with their DNA?

Do archaea have histones associated with their DNA?

yes

Histones

proteins that help keep DNA untangled

Lateral gene transfer

the transmition of genetic material not by inheritance

Prokaryotes are the ____ and most ____ lifeform on Earth.

oldest, abundant

Prokaryotes are found ____ with _____.

everywhere, biological life

The first prokaryote was in domain ____.

archaea

Was the first prokaryote aerobic or anaerobic?

anaerobic, there was no abundant atmospheric oxygen on early Earth

_____ are organisms that live in extreme environments.

extremophile

The first life on Earth would have been an ______ and ______, in domain ______.

extremophile, prokaryote, archaea

What is so important about the prokaryote 'Thermus aquaticus'?

the DNA polymerase that is produced by this bacteria is used to amplify DNA over and over, very rapidly. (ie. pcr, paternity tests, forensics)

DNA polymerase

an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA molecules

Bacteria that cause illness are called _____.

pathogens

Families of harmful bacteria are derived from ____ lineage(s).

different

The ability to cause disease is _____.

virulence

In virulence genes: one gene is a ____ ____ - it binds to ____ and inhibits ____ ____, killing the host cells.

-protein toxin -ribosomes -protein synthesis

Some pathogenic _____ produce resistant ______- tough, thick-walled, dormant structures formed during times of _____ stress.

-bacteria -endospores -environmental

Endospores store _____.

key genetic information (ie. DNA, RNA, enzymes)

Describe DNA transfer by transformation

1. dead cell releases DNA into the environment 2. donor DNA taken up by host 3. new DNA incorporated into host DNA through recombination

Describe DNA transfer by transduction

1. bacteriophage infects host (donor), which produces phages with a combination of both viral and bacterial DNA 2. dead cell releases bacteriophages into the environment 3. virus infects donor DNA into host

Describe DNA transfer by plasmid transfer, conjugation

1. bacterial cells make contact 2. copy of a plasmid from one cell is transferred via a conjugation tube

Describe DNA transfer by recombination, conjugation

1. portion of main chromosome is copied and transferred through conjugation tube to recipient cell 2. transferred portion recombines with chromosome in recipient cell

The first forms of photosynthesis didn't release ____. Instead they used ______ as an electron donor.

-O2 -Hydrogen sulfide

bacillus

rod shaped bacteria

cocci

sphere shape bacteria

spirilla

spiral shaped bacteria

Bacteria have a unique compound called ____ in their ____.

-peptidoglycan -cell walls

Gram-positive bacteria stain ____.

purple

Gram-negative bacteria stain ____.

pink

What part of the bacteria stains in a gram stain?

the peptidoglycan

Why are gram-negative bacteria harder to kill with antibiotics?

They have two cell membranes

Where do phototrophs get their energy?

sunlight

Where do chemoorganotrophs get their energy?

organic molecules

Where do chemolithotrophs get their energy?

inorganic molecules

Fermentation is ____ effective that cellular respiration. And ____ evolve the ETC.

-less -doesn't

The only lineage of photosynthetic bacteria that produces O2 is _____.

cyanobacteria

The evolution of cyanobacteria led to the creation of the ____ and threw the Earth into the _____.

-ozone layer -ice age

Protists include all ____ except, ____, ____, & ____.

-eukaryotes -land plants -fungi -animals

Are protists a monophyletic group?

Fungi are more closely related to ____ than ____.

-animals -plants

_____ likely evolved multiple times in eukaryotes.

multicellularity

Are protists multicellular or unicellular?

they can be both

During endosymbiosis the host cell provided ___ & ____, while the bacterium provided ____.

-protection -carbon compounds -ATP

What evidence suggests mitochondria were once independent? -same size and similar gene sequence as _____ -replicate by ____ -have their own ____ & manufacture their own ____ -have _____ membranes -have their own _____

-α-proteobacteria -fission -ribosomes, proteins -double -membranes

Secondary endosymbiosis

The engulfing of a cell that has previously been engulfed (membranes X4)

All species in the ____ have chloroplast with ____

-Plantae -2 membranes

Chloroplasts occur in ___ other lineages of protists. (other than Plante)

How did the nuclear envelope form?

-infoldings of the plasma membrane surrounded the chromosomes -with the evolution of the eukaryotic cell, membranes fold and form the nuclear envelope & ER

Sexual reproduction is unique to ____.

eukaryotes

Alternation of generations

multicellular haploid & diploid forms look identical

The sporophyte phase (_) produces ____.

-2n -spores

The gametophyte phase (_) produces ____.

-n -gametes

Harmful algal ‘blooms’ can be caused by ____.

dinoflagellates

What is the most ancestral group of plants?

green algae

Plant life started in ____.

water

The first green plants in the fossil record are ____, and were found in rocks from the ______ period.

-green algae -precambrian

What 2 traits do all plants discussed have in common?

-chlorophyll A&B -starch for storage

first land plants: from ___-___

475-416mya

non-vascular land plants include ____

liverworts, hornworts, & mosses

Why do we know so much about the first land plants?

the produced spores with fossilized really well

The green algae that are most closely related to land plants have ____ dominant life cycles. And no ____.

-haploid -alternation of generations

____ is a very durable biopolymer that encases spores & prevents dying

Sporopollenin

____ are complex, multicellular structures that protect developing games from drying & physical damage

Gametangia

Nonvascular land plants are ____ dominant.

gametophyte

Land plants exhibit ____

alternation of generations

Eggs develop in the ____

archegonia

Sperm develop in the ____

antheridia

Seedless-vascular plants have a ____ dominated life cycle. They are commonly known as ____.

-sporophyte -ferns

The evolution of ____ gave plants more support and allowed them to grow taller.

lignin

Does mitosis or meiosis make spores?

meiosis

Name two examples of gymnosperms.

pines and ginkgo trees

What are the two classifications of angiosperms?

monocots and dicots

angiosperms are the most ____ plants and most ____ diverged.

-diverse -diverged

which taxon has flowers and fruits?

angiosperms

The ____ is the location of the egg and is found in _____.

-ovule -angiosperms & gymnosperms

The ____ is the extra layer of protection around the egg and is found in ____.

-ovary -angiosperms f

____ plants are heterosporous.

seed

The microsporangia produces microspores, which is the ___ gametophyte.

male

The megasporangia produces megaspores, which is the ___ gametophyte.

female

____ is a male gamete surrounded by sporopollenin.

pollen

seed plants are ___ dominant

sporophyte

Malaria is caused by 5 species of ____.

plasmodium

What are the stages of a malaria infection?

-bites human -liver cells infected -replicate in liver cells until they burst -infect red blood cells -replicate in blood cells until they burst -bites human -male and female gametes release and fuse to form a zygote -infected mosquito bites another human