Exam 2 Flashcards by Hannah Pieroni

Only cell in nervous system capable of conducting nerve impulses. Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Neuron

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Provide support for the neurons.

Glial Cells

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skin and accessory organs (hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands)

integumentary system

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outer layer of the skin
superficial layer
(avascular = lacks blood vessels)

epidermis

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inner layer of the skin
highly vascularized
contains sensory structures, lymph vessels, nerves, and glands

dermis

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tissues that cover body surfaces and cavities

epithelial tissue

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binds structures together; provides support

connective tissue

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most common cell type
produces keratin
5 zones

keratinocytes

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What are the 5 zones of keratinocytes?

Stratum Basale
Stratum Spinosum
Stratum Granulosum
Stratum Lucidum
Stratum Corneum

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defensive cells
protection from disease causing agents

Langerhans cells

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function as light touch receptors

merkel cells

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produces melanin
Differences in skin color lies in the amount of melanin produced

Melanocytes

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imparts pink color to thin skin
located in red blood cells
O2 transporting protein in RBCs
Bright red when combined with O2

hemoglobin

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yellow orange
derived from diet
stored in adipose tissue (fat)
temporary pigment

beta carotene

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rare chronic blistering skin disease
autoimmune disorder
desmosomes attaching adjacent skin cells destroyed
cells separate
blisters form

pemphigus vulgaris

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light receptors
highly concentrated on fingertips
located in projections of the dermis into the epidermis called dermal papillas

Meissner’s corpuscles

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detect deep pressure and vibrations

Pacinian corpuscles

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2.5 million in body
function in temperature regulation
-produce sweat
sweat plays role in temperature regulation
body heat is absorbed as it evaporates

eccrine sweat glands

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function in humans?
no role in temperature regulation

apocrine sweat glands

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produce sebum; oily substance; lubricates skin and hair
all regions of body except for palms and soles
large on face, neck and upper chest
clogged ducts with bacterial invasion = acne

sebaceous glands

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produce the hair

hair follicle

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region of hair below the skin

hair root

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region of the hair above skin
composed of dead keratinized cells

hair shaft

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smooth muscle attached to hair follicle
causes hair to “stand on end”

arrector pili muscle

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grow from epithelial tissue at the base of the nail

nail root

skin fold that covers the nail root

cuticle

white, crescent shaped region of nail near the base

lunula

- not a layer of the skin - lies below the dermis - connects skin to underlying tissue - thick layer of adipose tissue (fat) found here - provides insulation and contributes to body contour

hypodermis

- single layer of live keratinocytes - lies on the dermis - deepest layer of the epidermis

Stratum basale

- thickest layer of living cells - prepared slide, the keratinocytes have a prickle-cell appearance (holly leaf shaped) - cell shape is a consequence of being dehydrated

Stratum Spinosum

- membrane coating granules are present in the cytoplasm of the cell - release contents - contents coat the plasma membrane - help to guard against water loss - mixture of dead and dying cells - nutrients cannot cross to reach cells

Stratum Granulosum

- all of the cells are dead - only see in thick skins (soles of feet, etc)

Stratum Lucidum

- superficial layer of the epidermis - thickest layer of dead cells - surface cells slough away

Stratum Corneum

about 60,000 miles of these in the human body

blood vessels

- conduct blood away from the heart - high pressure vessels - composition of wall: thin inner epithelium thick smooth muscle layer outer connective tissue

arteries

largest arteries with many elastic fibers in wall ex. aorta

elastic arteries

most arteries; medium sized arteries

muscular arteries

small arteries; help regulate blood pressure

arterioles

- smallest blood vessels - sites of exchange of materials between the blood and tissues - wall is only 1 cell thick

capillaries

- network of capillaries - exchange of materials between blood and cells occur

capillary bed

- conduct blood back to the heart - low pressure vessels - composition of wall: thin inner epithelium thin smooth muscle layer thick connective tissue layer

veins

small veins; receive blood from the capillaries

venules

At any given time, how much blood volume is contained in the veins?

70%

What happens if blood is lost due to hemorrhaging?

The nervous system signals the veins to contract and provide more blood to the rest of the body.

extensions of the lining that prevent blood from flowing backwards present in some veins close passively as blood attempts to flow backwards and pushes flaps shut

valves

superficial, distended, veins. Valves not functional resulting in pooling of blood

varicose veins

mammalian heart: 4 chambers no mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood human: approximately the size of your fist

heart

the tissue that separates the right and left sides of the mammalian heart

septum

What are the four chambers of the heart?

right and left atria right and left ventricles

upper, thinner walled chambers

atria

lower, thick-walled chambers the myocardium of the left is thicker than that of the right

ventricles

cardiac muscle layer of the heart

myocardium

prevent blood backflow into atria when ventricles contract

atrioventricular valves

between right atrium and right ventricle

tricuspid valve

between left atrium and left ventricle

bicuspid valves

string-like structure that anchor AV valves in ventricles

chordae tendineae

largest veins in body conduct oxygen-poor blood rom systemic circulation back to the right atrium

superior and inferior vena cavae

between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk prevents backflow of blood when right ventricle relaxes

pulmonary semilunar valve

blood is oxygenated

lungs

conduct oxygen-rich blood to heart

pulmonary veins

between left ventricle and aorta prevents backflow of blood when left ventricle contracts

aortic semilunar valve

largest artery in body conduct oxygenated blood to systemic circulation (all body regions except the lungs)

aorta

blood flow from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium

pulmonary circuit

blood from the left ventricle to the aorta, through the body, and back to the right atrium

systemic circuit

part of systemic circuit blood vessels that serve the wall of the heart

coronary circulation

events occurring during one heart beat

cardiac cycle

What is Stage 1 of the cardiac cycle?

atria in systole ventricles in diastole

What is Stage 2 of the cardiac cycle?

atria in diastole ventricles in systole

What is Stage 3 of the cardiac cycle?

atria in diastole ventricle in diastole

relaxation of the heart chambers

diastole

contraction of the heart chambers

systole

produced by closure of the heart valve closure generates vibrations vibrations transmitted to body wall detected with a stethoscope

heart sounds

produced by the closure of the atrioventricular valves "lub" loudest sound

first heart sounds

produced by the closure of the semilunar valves "dub"

second heart sound

- regions of specialized cardiac muscle fibers - generate impulses that travel through heart and cause heart to contract

nodal tissue of the heart

pacemaker of the heart sets the heartbeat rate located in right atrium

SA node (Sinoatrial Node)

located in right atrium delays relay of impulses to the ventricles for 1/10th of a second allows atria to empty

AV Node (atrioventricular node)

located in interventricular septum conduct impulses to ventricles

branches of the Atrioventricular node

located in wall of ventricles conduct signal for ventricles to contract

Purkinje fibers

ballooning of a blood vessel abdominal artery or cranial arteries most commonly affected atherosclerosis and hypertension can weaken arterial wall

aneurysm

build up of plaque in blood vessels stationary plaque: thrombus detached plaque: embolus increases risk of stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm

atherosclerosis

cerebrovascular accident (CVA) cranial artery is blocked or bursts part of brain dies due to lack of oxygen

stroke

What are the symptoms of stroke?

numbness of hands and feet weakness on one side of body confusion and difficulty speaking inability to see in one eye or both eyes loss of balance

medical name for heart attack part of the heart dies due to lack of oxygen

myocardial infarction

What does blood transport?

oxygen, nutrients, wastes, CO2, and hormones

What does the blood defend against?

invasion by pathogens

How does blood contribute to temperature regulation?

picks up heat from active muscles and transports through body

blood is a fluid connective tissue

blood clotting

fluid portion of the blood. Accounts for 55% of bloods total volume

plasma

transports molecules

albumins

defense against pathogens transport of molecules

globulins

involved in blood clotting

fibrinogen

- approximately 5,000,000 per mm of blood - transports O2 from lungs to cells - form in red bone marrow lose nuclei and other organelles before entering circulation - life span: about 120 days - Appearance: biconcave disks - shape provides greater surface area for gas exchange

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

oxygen transporting protein in erythrocytes about 280 million in each red blood cell bind to and transport O2

hemoglobin

- hereditary disorder - abnormal hemoglobin - RBC's assume a sickle shape - fragile cells (rupture passing through capillaries) - RBCs live about 90 days

sickle cell disease

- approximately 7000 per mm of blood - provide protection against disease-causing agents - originate in bone marrow - use blood plasma to travel to site of pathogen

leukocytes

leukocytes pass between post capillary values and enter connective tissue

diapedesis

contain specific granules in cytoplasm whose contents assist in cell function

granulocytes

no specific granules in cytoplasm

agranulocytes

- most common leukocytes - nucleus: 2-5 lobes - phagocytes: engulf bacteria - dead ones and the bacteria they engulf, we refer to as puss - numbers go up during acute infection - life span: few hours to several days

neutrophils (small, salmon-colored specific granules)

- nucleus: bilobed - provide protection from parasitic worms - reduce inflammation: engulf antigen-antibody complex life span: about 2 weeks

eosinophils (large, red specific granules)

- bilobed nucleus - promote the inflammatory tissues - blood flow to damaged tissues - inflammatory response - specific granules contain: - heparin - histamines

basophils (large, dark blue or purple specific granules)

anticoagulent

heparin

dilates blood vessels

histamine

What makes up lymphocytes?

B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes

- secrete antibodies: proteins produced in response to antigen encounter - life span: some may live for many years

B-lymphocytes (plasma cells)

- target cancer and virus-infected cells - life span: some may live for many years

T-lymphocytes

What are lymphocytes responsible for?

specific immunity

- called macrophages after they leave the blood and enter connective tissues - phagocytes that engulf pathogens and cellular debris - increase in number during chronic infections - life span: several months (60 days or so)

Monocytes

not intact cells but pieces of large bone marrow cells

megakaryocytes

megakaryocytes break apart and fragments (platelets) enter the blood about 200 billion enter the blood each day function in blood clotting: homeostasis

platelets (thrombocytes)

fibrin and trapped blood cells

blood clot

- transfer of blood from one to another - don't want donor blood to be damaged

blood transfusion

1) blood vessel is punctured 2) platelets congregate and form a plug 3) platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator, 4) fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells

Blood Clotting

- clumping of RBCs - RBCs can no longer transport oxygen - occurs when blood types not carefully matched

agglutination

- characterized by the presence - blood types named by antigens present exception: type O, RBCs lack A and B antigens

ABO Blood Groups

a foreign substance, often a polysaccharides or a protein, that stimulates an immune response

antigen

y-shaped protein secreted by plasma cells. produced in response to antigen detection in body. binds to that antigen

antibody

- type A antigen - anti - B antibody Blood Transfusion (can receive in emergency situation): A and O

ABO Blood Type: A

- type B antigen - anti-A antibody Blood Transfusion (can receive in emergency situation): B and O

- type A antigen and type B antigen - no antibody circulating in plasma - universal receiver - Blood Transfusion (in an emergency situation): AB

ABO Blood Type: AB

- universal donor - no antigens - antibody A and B - Blood Transfusion (in an emergency situation): O

ABO Blood Type: O

another blood type antigen protein found on surface of RBCs

Rh factor

if Rh is present

positive

if Rh is not present

negative

intake of food

ingestion

breakdown of food into sizes small enough to allow absorption by the cells lining the GI tract

digestion

chewing, stomach contraction

mechanical digestion

require enzymes reduces food to size small enough to be absorbed

chemical digestion

uptake of digested food by cells lining the GI tract

absorption

transport of food from one digestive organ to the next to allow food to be properly digested, absorbed, or eliminated

movement

removal of undigested and unabsorbed food

elimination

- inner layer that borders lumen (cavity) - blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, glands - lining epithelial cells - absorb nutrients - secrete digestive - enzymes.mucous

mucosa

-connective tissue layer - contains blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, glands

submucous

- extensive muscle layer: usually two layers of smooth muscle but exceptions occur. - contraction moves food through organs of digestion

muscularis

- outer layer of wall - if organ lies outside of abdominal cavity, the outer layer is adventitia: thick layer of connective tissue - if organ lies within abdominal cavity, the outer layer is a serosa: thin layer of connective tissue covered by mesothelium

serosa or advententitia

simple squamous epithelial cells

mesothelium

- site of food intake - separated by nasal cavity by the palate hard palate: reinforced by bone. immovable soft palate: no bone. moveable

oral cavity

shape of tooth determines its function

teeth

bite off food (8)

incisors

tear and shred food (4)

canines

crush and grind food (8) and (4)

premolars and molars

3rd molar on both sides of upper/lower jaw

wisdom teeth

aids in swallowing

moisten/lubricating

facilitate taste

dissolves food particles

kill ingested bacteria

antibacterial agents

enzyme that begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates

salivary amylase

- parotid glands - submandibular glands - sublingual glands

major salivary glands

- inflammation of salivary glands caused by a virus -parotid gland most commonly affected - rare complications: sterility (men), encephalitis, loss of hearing

mumps

scrapes food from surfaces of oral cavity and helps form a bolus

tongue

semisolid mass of chewed food mixed with saliva

bolus

- projections from tongue surface - many equipped with taste buds

lingual papillae

sensory receptors

taste buds

- region commonly referred to as the "throat" - conducts bolus to esophagus - no digestion or absorption of food occurs here

pharnyx

aggregates of lymphoid tissue - contains white blood cells providing protection from pathogens in food/air

tonsils

- muscular tube that conducts bolus to stomach - no digestion - no absorption

esophagus

wave-like, rhythmic muscular contractions that propel food forward through digestive organs

peristalsis

What prevents food from entering respiratory passageways when you swallow?

The bolus moves from the oral cavity to the pharynx and then to the esophagus. The esophagus is located from the larynx (conducts air in respiratory system) the opening to the larynx is the glottis overhanging the glottis is a flap-like structure called the epiglottis when you swallow: larynx moves up and epiglottis covers opening into larynx (glottis) soft pallet moves back to close off nasal cavity bolus moves into esophagus

- most dilated region of GI tract - smooth muscle oriented in 3 directions - contracts and mixes food with digestive enzymes - chemical digestion of proteins begins - very little absorption occurs in stomach - bolus converted to chyme

stomach

partially digested, liquified, acidic food

chyme

lined by mucous cells

mucosa of stomach

temporary folds in the stomach lining

rugae

indentation in lining. lined by mucus cells.

gastric pits

open into pits

gastric glands

- secrete pepsinogen, the precursor to the protein digesting enzyme, pepsin. - pepsinogen will interact with hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the cavity of the stomach and then converted to pepsin

chief cells

- secrete HCl and intrinsic factor - HCl necessary for the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin and kills bacteria in ingested food

parietal cells

replace cells of the gastric glands

regenerative cells

secretions of digestive glands

gastric juice

- also called gastroesophageal reflux disease - GERD - backup of gastric into esophagus - can cause pain and damage to lining of esophagus

heartburn

opening in diaphragm where esophagus passes through to enter abdominal cavity and connect with stomach

hiatus

protrusion of an organ somewhere it is not supposed to be

hernia

protrusion of region of stomach through the diaphragm

hiatal hernia

stomach and joining section of esophagus slid-up through hiatus puts you at risk for GERD

sliding hiatal hernia

- esophagus and stomach remain in place - part of stomach squeezes through hiatus and lies alongside the esophagus - more cause for concern - blood supplies to protruding stomach region may be cut off

paraesophageal hernia

open sores in the stomach or small intestine

peptic ulcers

bacterium responsible for development of most ulcers

helicobacter pylori

- 90% of digested food is absorbed here by enterocytes of the lining - chemical digestion of proteins and carbohydrates: completed - chemical suggestion of lipids: begins and completed

small intestine

initial segment of the small intestine. receives chyme from stomach. digestion of food completed here

duodenum

primary site of nutrient absorption

jejunum

absorption of food is completed here. contents delivered to cecum of large intestine

ileum

increases the surface area for absorption of nutrients 400-600 times up the capacity for nutrient absorption

mucosal modifications increasing the surface area of the small intestine

large circular folds in the mucosa and submucosa of intestinal wall

plicae circulares

finger-like projections of mucosa

villi

highly folded regions of the free surface of the plasma membrane of enterocytes

microvilli

lymphatic capillaries in villi absorbs triglycerides

lacteals

When carbohydrates are ingested what is absorbed?

monosaccharides

When lipids are ingested what is absorbed?

glycerol and fatty acids

When proteins are ingest what is absorbed?

amino acids

these glands add secretions to the small intestine to promote digestion. food does not enter these glands

accessory digestive glands

- produces bile emulsifies and stores it - releases bile into small intestine

gall bladder

- functions as an accessory digestive gland (exocrine regions) and endocrine glands. the digestive function only is covered in this chapter - adds digestive enzymes and bicarbonate (buffer) to small intestine - bicarbonate prevents the destruction of the digestive system in small intestine

pancreas

- about 5 feet long and 25 inches wide Function: water absorption and vitamin by non-pathogenic bacteria residing there

large intestine

connected to ileum of small intestine

cecum

blind-ended pouch hanging off the cecum

appendix

Exam 2 Flashcards

(194 cards)