exam 2 Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
what is the abstract?
A
-what you first read to see if you’re interested in reading the paper
-gives a general overview of the study & major findings
2
Q
what is the introduction?
A
-literature review
-introduces all of the concepts including any theories (theoretical lens)
-may also propose hypotheses or research questions
3
Q
what is the methods?
A
-what the researchers did to obtain their data
-describes the participants in the study
-details research procedures
-identifies measures used
-allows for replication, which is ideal in science
4
Q
what is the results?
A
-describes the data
-tests hypotheses/research questions
-numbers (if quantitative)
5
Q
what is the discussion?
A
-general findings
-implications
-limitations
-future research
6
Q
what are implications?
A
what the researchers can learn from the study
7
Q
what are limitations?
A
where the researchers fell short during the study & what they still don’t know
8
Q
what is a p-value?
A
the probability of the result being obtained if the null hypothesis is true
-p<0.05 to reject the null hypothesis
9
Q
what is a null hypothesis?
A
there is no association between the variables in question
10
Q
what is quantitative research?
A
numerical research
11
Q
what is qualitative research?
A
nonnumerical
-purpose is sense-making or understanding rather than prediction or explanation
12
Q
what is external validity?
A
the extent to which you can generalize the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings, & measures
13
Q
what is internal validity?
A
the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the population we are studying
14
Q
what is relational/transactional communication?
A
communicators exert mutual influence on each other
15
Q
what is therapeutic privilege?
A
privilege sometimes granted to doctors to withhold information from patients if they feel disclosing information would do more harm than good
-bad b/c it maintains patients’ dependence to medical establishments
16
Q
why might doctors partake in therapeutic privilege?
A
-afraid to share bad news
-bad news might damage doctors’ reputation
-don’t want patients to know about harmful, but rare side effects from treatment
17
Q
what is blocking?
A
when physicians block patients’ complaints & emotional disclosures
-talking down to patients
-withholding information
-dismissing their feelings
18
Q
what is a transgression?
A
actions that cross the line between intimacy & professionalism
-painful & confusing results
-may results from patients’ vulnerability, their need for assurance, & the trust they place in their providers
19
Q
what is doorknob disclosure?
A
when patients reveal their main medical concerns when the physician is getting ready to end the interaction
20
Q
what is the model of collaborative interpretation?
A
health communication is most effective when patients actualize the roles of decision-makers
21
Q
what is the patient as a central construct?
A
the goal of patient-caregiver communication is to minimize reliance on medicine & maximize the importance of everyday health & fulfillment
22
Q
what is the transtheoretical model?
A
a model that assesses an individual’s readiness to act on a new healthier behavior
-originally used for smoking recission
23
Q
what is precontemplation?
A
-people don’t intend to start the healthy behavior in the near future (within 6 months) & may be unaware of the need to change
-underestimate the pros of changing & overestimate the cons
-encourage precontemplators to become more mindful of their decision making & more conscious of the multiple benefits of changing an unhealthy behavior
24
Q
what is contemplation?
A
-individuals intend to start the healthy behavior within the next 6 months
-perceive the pros & cons similarly
-contemplate about who they could be if they changed their behavior
-encourage contemplators to work at reducing the cons of changing their behavior
25
what is preparation?
-people are ready to start taking action within the next 30 days
-individuals take small steps towards making a health behavior
-number one concern is: when I act, will I fail?
-the better prepared they are, the more likely they are to keep progressing
26
what is action?
-people have changed their behavior within the last 6 months & need to work hard to keep moving ahead
-the goal is to strengthen consistencies & resist the urge to relapse
-substitute activities related to the unhealthy behavior with positive ones
-reward yourself for taking steps toward changing
-avoid people & situations that tempt them to behave in unhealthy ways
27
what is maintenance?
-6 months after behavior change, people are now maintaining their healthy behavior
-important for people to be aware of situations that may tempt them to relapse
-seek support from & talk with people whom they trust & spend time with people who behave in healthy ways
-the "new normal"
28
what are the limitations of the transtheoretical model?
-dividing lines between stages is arbitrary
-assumes that people make coherent and stable plans when they don't
-time spent at stages hasn't been verified outside of smoking recission
29
what is motivational interviewing?
a patient-centered process in which an interviewer helps an interviewee explore & resolve ambivalence about a decision while respecting the interviewee's autonomy
-used to elicit behavioral change
-interviewer respectfully & non-judgementally asks questions; helps clarify interviewee's feelings; support them in making positive choices
30
what is the voice of lifeworld?
a way of communicating that's primarily concerned with health & illness as they relate to everyday experiences
31
what are the types of identities?
-personal: who am I?
-social: which societal groups do I belong to?
-tertiary: who am I due to this illness?
32
what is the role of patients?
-concerned with how illness affects their lifeworld
-more than just curing illness
-address impacts on all facets of daily life
-goal: return to life as usual
33
what are the four phases of identity?
-supernormal identity: the person feels the illness won't prevent them from being better than ever (denial)
-restored self: the person is less optimistic than at first, but still feels that the illness won't significantly change them
-contingent personal identity: the person begins to see that their abilities & identity are changed because of the illness
-savage self: the stage of chronic illness during which the person integrates aspects of the former self with current limitations imposed by the illness
34
what are the social roles of patients?
-constrained by their social roles
-social norms & obligations are suspended
-trade-off is losing autonomy & privacy
35
what is autonomy?
freedom from external control or influence
36
what is patient satisfaction?
the extent to which patients are content with their healthcare
-patients want someone who listens & empathizes
-communication valued over technical skills
-a sense of control & dignity
37
what are the most common complaints dealing with time?
-waiting too long in lobby
-waiting too long in exam room
-not enough time with the doctor
-doctor doesn't answer questions & seems rushed
38
what is patient cooperation?
how effectively patients follow medical advice
-50-60% follow through completely or most of the time
-not necessarily laziness or indifference
-reduce noncooperation by encouraging patients to ask questions & express concerns & through motivational interviewing
39
how do you measure patient satisfaction?
-qualitative
-quantitative (standardized questionnaire- Press Ganey)
40
what is informed consent?
the requirement that patients must be:
-fully aware of known treatment risks, benefits, & options
-deemed capable of understanding such information & making responsible decisions
-aware that they can refuse to participate or stop treatment any time
41
how do you cite APA references?
-journals: Author(s) Last Name, First Initial. (year). Title of resource. Publisher, Volume # (Issue #) Pg-range
-books: Author(s) Last Name, First Initial. (year). Title of resource. Publisher.
-websites: Contributors' names. (Last edited date). Title of resource. Retrieved current month day, year from Site URL or Publisher Name.
42
how do you cite in-text citations?
-(Author's Last Name, year)
-Author's name (year)
-if there are two authors, use both last names
-if there are three or more, use: (First Author Last Name, year) or First author "and colleagues" (year)
43
what is medical socialization?
the process of learning how to behave appropriately within in a specific community
-explicit
-implicit
44
what is the role of providers?
-concerned with the voice of medicine
-restrained emotions
-accurate diagnoses & prognoses
-expedient care
45
what must providers develop & maintain?
professional identity
-legitimate guardians of people's health
-interdisciplinary professionals
-endure rites of passages
46
what must providers navigate?
bureaucratic constraints
-policy changes
-time
-money
consequences:
-burnout, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced sense of personal accomplishment
47
what are the effects of stress & burnout?
lower quality of work by providers, which leads to lower patient satisfaction
48
what are tips for providers for managing burnout?
-treat complaints as opportunities to learn & help
-invest in patients' thoughts & feelings
-try a little humor when appropriate
49
what is the multiple goals perspective?
interaction goals:
-identity goals: pertain to the impression you want to make about yourself or your conversational partner
-relational goals: pertain to creating or maintaining a certain relationship
-educational goals: pertain to the exchange of information
medical goals: desired outcomes to health issue
50
what is uncertainty?
inability to make sense of, assign value to, or predict the outcomes of events because of a lack of sufficient cues
51
what are the types of uncertainty?
ambiguity: the quality of being open to more than one interpretation
-"I asked my teacher what they thought of my paper, & they said it was interesting"
-"My doctor isn't sure if my blood pressure dropping is good or bad"
ambivalence: the state of having mixed feelings or contradictory ideas about something or someone
-"Nate is really nice to me, but I have heard others say he isn't nice to them"
-"I'm not sure if I want to major in marketing or sociology"
52
what is the continuum of certainty & uncertainty?
0%- certain
50%- uncertain
100%- certain
53
what is the uncertainty reduction theory?
when interacting, people need information about the other party in order to reduce their uncertainty
-individuals are motivated to predict & explain others' behavior; this is crucial to the development of relationships
critiques:
-theory limited to initial interactions
-inconsistent support for central tenets
-central assumption is questionable
54
what are strategies to reducing uncertainty?
-passive: observing another person in their natural environment while being unnoticed
-active: an action to reducing uncertainties without any personal direct contact
-interactive: directly communicating with someone to reduce the uncertainty
55
what is the uncertainty management theory?
uncertainty is a fundamental & pervasive part of the human experience
-argues drive to reduce uncertainty is only one of several possible outcomes for dealing with uncertainty
core assumptions:
-individuals experience different types of uncertainty
-individuals appraise uncertainty for meaning
-communication is a primary tool for managing uncertainty
-experiencing uncertainty isn't always bad
56
how do we manage uncertainty?
-avoid relevant information- direct avoidance, selective attention, withdraw/suppress
-cognitive reappraisal- reappraise (level of issue importance, desired level of uncertainty, meaning of uncertainty)
-seek social support
57
what are the pros and cons of seeking social support?
pros:
-can help individuals feel validated
-provides a source for venting feelings
-minimize social uncertainties
cons:
-diminished feelings of control
-relational uncertainty
-additional uncertainty
58
what is the intersectionality theory?
the idea that a person's social position emerges within the interface of micro-level personal identities & macro-level sociocultural patterns
-no category is more important than the other
-emphasizes assumptions & generalizations have harmful outcomes
-health campaigns should target multiple identities instead of just one
59
what are health inequities?
structural & systematic factors that put some groups at a disadvantage compared to others
60
what is SES?
a combination of income, education, & employment level
-affects access to health care services, environmental exposure, & health behavior
61
how does SES affect communication?
patients of low SES typically:
-ask fewer questions & reveal less about health concerns
-are less satisfied with medical care
-are less likely to benefit from written materials
-have difficulties in negotiating treatment decisions
62
what is health literacy?
individuals' ability to access health information, understand it, & apply it to promote good health
-50% of Americans have low health literacy
63
what is heteronormativity?
the assumption that people's romantic partnerships are with someone of the opposite sex
-LGBT individuals often receive substandard care: lack health information & guidance, feel less valued for who they are, & denied visiting privileges & information
64
what are ageist assumptions about older people?
-less healthy
-less health literate
-less intelligent
-health concerns written off as unavoidable signs of old age
overaccomodation can be offensive
65
what is a stereotype?
a fixed & oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing
66
what is discrimination?
the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things
67
what is social concordance?
a measure of shared attributes between physicians & patients
-those who view each other as similar have easier & more satisfactory communication
-opposite of social discordance
68
what is the social accommodation theory?
people tend to mirror others' communication patterns to display liking & respect
-convergence: using gestures, tone of voice, & vocabulary similarly to one's communication patterns
-divergence: acting differently from another person
69
what are healthcare disparities?
differences in the quality of care received by minorities & non-minorities who have
equal access to care & when there are no differences between these groups in their preferences or needs for treatment
-different from accessibility
70
why are there disparities in health?
-the way healthcare systems are organized & operate
-patients' attitude & behaviors
-health care providers' biases, prejudices, & uncertainty when treating minorities
71
what are the two types of bias?
explicit bias: bias of which people are consciously aware
-outcomes: blatant discrimination
-measure: self-report
implicit bias: bias that's activated automatically without conscious awareness
-outcomes: subtle expressions of discrimination
-measure: implicit association test
72
what is the implicit association test (IAT)?
aims to detect subconscious associations between mental representations of objects in memory
-limitations: internal validity & inconsistent results
73
what is aversive racism?
a form of contemporary racism that operates unconsciously in subtle & indirect ways
-beliefs originate in childhood
-not limited to race
different from overt racism, which is characterized by hatred for & discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities
74
what is social support?
the perception & provision of caring & being cared for
-perceived support: the perception of caring/being cared for
-enacted support: the act of caring/being cared for
75
what are the 5 support types?
-instrumental: sharing tasks & resources
-informational: seeking & sharing information
-network: connecting people to others (support groups: groups of people with similar concerns who meet to share their feelings & experiences)
-emotional: comforting someone in distress
-esteem: helping someone feel valued & competent
76
what is the stress-buffering hypothesis?
social support can shield the negative effects of stress
-any type of support is effective
-bad event > high stress> social support > lowered stress
77
what is the main-effect model?
social support has positive outcomes, regardless if stressors exist or not
78
what is the optimal matching model?
people benefit most when they get the type of support that fits the situation
79
what are support gaps?
the best outcomes are thought to result when the quantity of received support matches the quantity of desired support
-support deficit: received support < desired support
-support surplus: received support > desired support
oversupport: overhelping, overinforming, overemphasizing
emotional contagion
80
how does social support relate to health?
-social support heals indirectly by reducing stress
-social support heals directly by targeting specific health outcomes
81
what is pain catastrophizing?
exaggerated negative appraisals of painful stimuli
82
how does one give emotionally supportive messages?
-acknowledgment: how precisely does a message label negative emotions? ("I know that you're upset")
-validation: to what extent does a message acknowledge that emotions are understandable or justified? ("I understand why you feel that way")
-verbal reappraisal incentive: does a message encourage people to look forward to a positive future? ("Things will get better")
83
what is stigma?
negative attitudes held about individuals who are perceived to possess a trait deemed negative by the community at large, as well as those with whom these individuals are associated
-always negatively valenced (no positive stigma)
84
what are the 3 extensions of stigma?
-social consensus: who is stigmatized for what traits depend on time, location, & political climate
-perceived stigmatized trait: people can have a trait but not be stigmatized for it or people can't have a trait but be stigmatized for it anyway
-transferred stigma: stigma not only affects individuals but also those they associate with (courtesy stigma)
85
why do we stigmatize?
-to distinguish themselves
-to protect themselves
-people may have trouble differentiating the person from their stigmatized trait
identity engulfment: defining a person first & foremost by their stigmatized trait
86
what are social sanctions?
-negative social sanctions: punishing behaviors in response to others' expressed undesirable beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, or personal qualities
-positive social sanctions: rewarding behaviors
87
what are the outcomes of stigmatizing behaviors?
-poor patient-provider relationships
-worse health outcomes
-lawsuits
88
what are the implications for health care personnel?
-avoid irrational fears of contagion
-be aware of nonverbals
-training for non-clinal personnel
