Exam #2

Question 1

Categories of Emotional Appraisals

Cognitive and Emotional Interactions beginning

Answer 1

1) Threat (Distress)

2) Challenge (Eustress)

3) Benign or Irrelevant

Question 2

valence? activation?

1) Threat (Distress) vs Challenge (Eustress) Emotional Appraisal?

Answer 2

Threat (Distress):
- Stressor is dangerous or overwhelming
- Requires activation, negative valence (aversive)
- Sympathetic activation with large increase in cortisol (HPA axis)

Challenge (Eustress):
positive stress response
* Stressor may be engaging or rewarding
* Requires activation, positive valence (appetitive)
* Sympathetic activation with minor increase in cortisol

Question 3

Benign or Irrelevant Emotional Appraisal?

Answer 3

it can be stressful to you, but not others
* Benign = “Stressor” is not stressful. May be harmless or even pleasant.
* Irrelevant = “Stressor” does not apply to you, even if it’s aversive to others.
* Does not require activation.
* Parasympathetic nervous system. Return to homeostasis.

Question 4

Types of primary appraisals?

Primary (emotional) appraisal?

Answer 4

• Immediate and first emotional appraisal (1-st reaction: is this a threat? - fear)
• Influenced by personal relevance, cognitive beliefs, and behavioral commitments (goals)
• Biased towards searching for threatening information.
• Types of primary appraisals: Threat, Challenge, Benign, or Irrelevant
• Fronto-limbic connections
• Can be conscious or unconscious

Question 5

questions to ask?

Secondary (emotional) appraisal?

Answer 5

• Follows the primary appraisal (reaction to another reaction) or Re-interpretation of emotion (Your reaction to your reaction)
• Involves cognitive evaluations of initial emotion and attempts to regulate emotional reactions
• How to respond to or how to cope with the situation?
• What will be required? What resources are available?
• Can the stressor be minimized or avoided?

Question 6

Implicit Appraisals: Unconscious emotional associations

Answer 6

1) Emotional appraisals do not have to be fully conscious
* Appraisals may be implicit
* Due to past experiences and conditioning

Question 7

Implicit Appraisals: Classical conditioning?

Answer 7

1) Classical conditioning
* A stimulus that was initially neutral, gets paired with a stimulus that evokes an emotional response
* Later the stimulus that was neutral, now evokes that some emotional response

2) Classical conditioning does not require conscious awareness
* Individuals with severe amnesia can still learn from classical conditioning
* Can be conditioned while asleep
* Damage to hippocampus does not interfere with classical conditioning

Question 8

Amygdala, which memory?

Answer 8

• Best known for processing emotions
• But…can also create “emotional memories”
• Amygdala can create implicit memories (Which can remain unconscious)
• Classical conditioning is implicit memory: The Amygdala (not the hippocampus) is required for classical conditioning

Question 9

Coping Strategies: Problem-focused vs emotion-focused coping

Answer 9

1) Problem-focused coping:
* Coping based on trying to solve the problem causing stress
* Involves trying to understand the problem, devise a strategy to deal with it.
* Pros: May ”solve” the problem. Lessen, minimize, or avoid future stress.
* Cons: May be initially costly in time, energy, and resources.

2) Emotion-focused coping:
* Coping based on dealing with the emotional feeling of stress.
* Involves trying to limit the emotional reaction.
* May involve avoidance, denial, acceptance, venting, or blame.
* Pros: Initially less costly.
* Cons: The problem isn’t solved. Drains coping resources over the long-term.

Question 10

“Gut” vs ‘‘Mental” feelings (which brain areas and appraisals)

Answer 10

Visceral or “Gut” feelings (aspects of emotions) - emotion regulation more associated with ventral PFC and ACC fronto-limbic connections - Primary appraisal.

“Mental” or cognitive aspects of emotions, emotional regulation (feelings) more associated with dorsal PFC and ACC fronto-limbic connections - Secondary Appraisal.
* Secondary appraisals may adjust the balance of “mental” vs “visceral” components

Question 11

Brain Areas involved in Emotional Appraisals and Regulation (frontolimbic connections)

Answer 11

• Frontal Areas —> prefrontal lobe (PFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
• Limbic System —> Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus
• Connections between frontal areas and limbic areas (frontolimbic connections)

Question 12

Amygdala Nucleii? Types and function?

Answer 12

Basolateral nuclei:
* learning “emotional” associations, classical conditioning

Central nuclei
* Regulates “fear” responses
* Connections to face (fearful facial expressions)
* Connections to hypothalamus (sympathetic activation… also CRF feedback)
* Connections to vagus nerve (feedback about sympathetic activation)
* Connections to brainstem (aminergic nuclei that influence attention, motivation, mood)
* The central nuclei of the amygdala plays a direct role in how our bodies respond to stress

Question 13

LeDoux’s Low Road vs. High Road of Fear
connections? conscious vs non?

Answer 13

1) LeDoux’s Model of Fear Processing
* Amygdala can generate fear response consciously and unconsciously.

2) Low-road
* Connections from thalamus to amygdala
* Amygdala processes sensory info independent of cortex
* Fast, unconscious processing

3) High-road
* Sensory info processed by cortex prior to amygdala
* Slowe, conscious processing

Question 14

connections and regulation

CRF Feedback System

Answer 14

• Connections from brainstem back to frontal and limbic areas
• This feedback system helps regulate emotional appraisal and responses
• Particularly with stress that causes prolonged sympathetic activation

Question 15

CRF Feedback System: Aminergic Nuclei

Cognitive and Emotional Interactions END

Answer 15

Aminergic Nuclei in the brainstem:

1) Ventral Tegmental Area

2) Raphe Nuclei

3) Locus Ceruleus

Question 16

Ventral Tegmental Area

Answer 16

• Dopamine ”circuit” (also connects to nucleus accumbens)
• Regulates motivation and reward (related to addiction)

Question 17

Raphe nuclei

Answer 17

• Serotonin (sends signals between your nerve cells) “circuit”
• Regulates mood (related to anxiety and depression)

Question 18

Locus ceruleus

Answer 18

• Norepinephrine “circuit”
• Regulates attention and arousal (related to sleep vs. waking)

Question 19

HSAM? regulated by? connects to? projections to?

Stress Sensitization begin

Answer 19

HSAM = Hypothalamus-> Sympathetic -> Adrenal Medulla
* Regulated by dorsal and ventral PVN
* Connects to brainstem
* Projections to organs of SNS
* Release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from medulla of adrenal gland

Question 20

HPAC? regulated by? connects to?

Answer 20

HPAC = Hypothalamus —> Pituitary —> Adrenal Cortex
* Regulated by medial PVN
* Connects to pituitary (release ACTH)
* Release of cortisol from the cortex of adrenal gland

Question 21

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (common)

Answer 21

• Hormones released by sympathetic activation
• Increase release of stored energy (fat and sugar)
• Increase blood pressure. Increase inflammation.

Question 22

Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine (differences)

Answer 22

Epinephrine:
* Greater activation of “beta” adrenergic receptors in the body.
* Bigger impact on heart rate and force of heart contractions (to increase blood pressure).
* Epi at the pituitary stimulates ACTH release —> increases cortisol
* Amygdala can monitor epi levels through beta-receptors on vagus nerve

Norepinephrine:
* Greater activation of “alpha” adrenergic receptors in the body
* Bigger impact on blood vessels (to increase blood pressure)
* Also, a major neurotransmitter that regulates attention (locus ceruleus)

Question 23

What’s cortisol? Traits?

Answer 23

• Hormone of the HPA axis
• A steroid hormone (made from cholesterol)
• Glucocorticoids include cortisol (humans) and corticosterone(rats)
• Cortisol has many, many effects in the body and in the brain (Cortisol can pass through the blood-brain barrier)

Question 24

Effects of Cortisol?

Answer 24

• Stimulates catecholamine synthesis (make more epi, norepi, dopamine)
• Sensitivity of aminergic receptors (increase response to epi and norepi)
• Increase energy supply (burn carbs, releases fats)
• Increase intensity of sensory stimulation (thalamus)
• Enhance memory function (hippocampus activation)
• Decrease inflammation (immune system)

Question 25

Circadian Rhythm of Cortisol Regulation? Which parts of brain?

Answer 25

Normal Cortisol Regulation: 1) Daily cycle. Peaks in the morning, decreases throughout day, lowest while asleep 2) Regulated by suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of hypothalamus * Connects to PVN of hypothalamus (control of HPA axis) * Connects to pineal gland (to control release of melatonin)

Question 26

# minor stressor on a day-to-day basis A “normal” Stress Response (to a momentary stressor) ask!!

Answer 26

1) Sympathetic activation (HSAM): * Autonomic ---> direct control of heart, lungs, muscles, blood pressure * Endocrine ---> release epinephrine 2) Increase HPA axis (HPAC) * Cortisol release occurs after brief delay (about 15 minutes) 3) Negative feedback loops turn off HPA axis * Parvocellular neurons in the PVN (Controls normal level of cortisol secretion). * Sensitive to low levels of cortisol. Turn off due to negative feedback. * Cortisol returns to “normal” levels (magnocellular don't turn off easily, so cortisol levels get very high)

Question 27

Hormones in Harmony

Answer 27

1) HSAM and HPAC talk to each other and increase each other’s effects: * HSAM ---> release epi and norepi ---> triggers activation of HPAC (short-term response) * HPAC ---> release cortisol ---> makes body more responsive to epi and norepi (long-term response) 2) Extended activation of both can lead to stress sensitization

Question 28

Stress Hormones list?

Answer 28

Question 29

When CRF levels increase in Amygdala...

Answer 29

* More activation of magnocellular (CRF-AVP) neurons in the PVN * More cortisol released...less negative feedback

Question 30

Amygdala involved in regulating?

Answer 30

1) Amygdala monitors HSAM and HPAC ---> uses CRF to signal the PVN (“intense stress”) 2) PVN of hypothalamus: * Activates magnocellular neurons (CRF-AVP neurons) ---> way more ACTH --> way more cortisol * Magnocellular neurons less responsive to negative feedback

Question 31

Sensitization to Stress (Amygdala?)

Answer 31

High levels of cortisol activate Type 2 (GR) cortisol receptors in amygdala: * Type 2 can alter gene expression (Increases release of CRF with vasopressin): 1) Amygdala "remembers" associations with the stressor. 2) Amygdala has become sensitized. Similar stresses in the future will trigger bigger stress responses * Increased CRF in amygdala ---> more ACTH and Cortisol release (increased stress reactivity) * Increased CRF in locus ceruleus (more epinephrine release) ---> increased arousal and alertness (hypervigilance) * Stress-induced cortisol regulation allows cortisol levels to increase beyond “normal” levels

Question 32

Result of Stress Sensitization?

Answer 32

1) Increased reactivity: * Bigger HPA response (HPAC) (more cortisol, less negative feedback) * Bigger sympathetic response (HSAM) - More cortisol means the body makes more and is more sensitive to epi and norepi 2) Hypervigilance: increased arousal and alertness

Question 33

Hypervigilance? ask!!

Answer 33

* Activation of CRF feedback system ---> greater activation of the locus ceruleus. * Increased norepinephrine in the brain ---> more attention and arousal. * Less attentional control (unable to change the focus of attention). * Useful for detecting threats in the environment.

Question 34

Individual vulnerability to Stress Sensitization | stress sensit. end

Answer 34

1) But, sensitization is long-lasting: * May continue to have large stress responses even to mild stressors 2) Individual vulnerability: * Hippocampus stronger negative feedback for HPA * Helps “turn off” signals from the amygdala * People with smaller hippocampus, more vulnerable to stress sensitization

Question 35

Dysregulation of stress responses linked to? | Blunted vs. Exaggerated Reactivity beginning

Answer 35

poor mental and physical health: * Both exaggerated and blunted responses “unhealthy” * Still unclear how or what types of stressors lead to blunted vs. exaggerated reactivity

Question 36

Exaggerated Reactivity?

Answer 36

* May be triggered by traumatic stressful experiences. * More reactive stress responses. Weaker negative feedback system. (Stress response easily activated. Hard to turn off.) * More cortisol released. Bigger heart rate increase. (May be adaptive in threatening environments that require vigilance.) * More avoidance, less approach motivation. * Associated with Heart Disease, Hostility, trauma related anxiety (PTSD).

Question 37

Blunted reactivity?

Answer 37

* May be caused by extended early life stress (like poverty or neglect) * Less reactive stress responses. Stronger negative feedback system - Stress response not easily activated. Turns off quickly. * Less cortisol released. Smaller heart rate increase - May be adaptive to protect body from allostatic load of high cortisol * More approach, less avoidance motivation * Associated with Alcoholism, Addiction, Depression, Obesity - Poor impulse control. More sensation seeking.

Question 38

# baseline cortisol levels? stress reactivity? Blunted Reactivity Research (2012)

Answer 38

No differences in baseline cortisol levels due to early life stress or gender * On resting days, similar cortisol levels for men and women regardless of early life stress Early life stress and gender predicted differences in stress reactivity: * More early life stress ---> less reactivity * Women showed less reactivity * Less cortisol change. * Less heart rate change

Question 39

# Early Life Stress predicted Blunted Reactivity Research (focus on this)

Answer 39

Poor self-control Early Life Stress predicted: 1) Less executive function * More difficulty on Stroop Task 2) Less maturity * Rated to have lower “mental age” * “Act your age” 3) More impulsivity * Less able to delay gratification 4) Larger BMI * More likely to be overweight 5) Early Life Stress predicted: * More antisocial behavior * More neurotic personality traits * Can be emotionally volatile, irritable * More depression symptoms * More novelty seeking * Less behavioral control * Less sociability

Question 40

# Individual Differences Level of Control over stress responses

Answer 40

1) Fronto-limbic (Level 1): * Thoughts, Feelings, and Memories * Frontal lobes (PFC and ACC), Amygdala, Nucleus Accumbens (dopamine system) 2) Hypothalamus-Brainstem (Level 2): * Gain factors on autonomic and endocrine responses * PVN, Locus Ceruleus, Raphe Nuclei, VTA (ventral tegmental area) 3) Peripheral Organs (Level 3): * How the body responds * Heart, lungs, stomach, kidneys

Question 41

Article #3 - “Cortisol induced impairments..." Conclusions

Answer 41

Trier Social Stress Test: Given 5 min to prepare a 5 min speech about a topic, then given the speech in front of a small audience (3 psychologists). * Working Memory (WM) most impaired immediately after TSST * Although the stress task did not evoke similar levels of stress in all participants... * ....Working memory was significantly impaired for those that were stressed (large increase in cortisol). * Cortisol levels alone did not predict lower working memory, only cortisol levels in response to stress - Cortisol levels were still elevated after recovery.... But sympathetic activation was back to normal * Both sympathetic activation and high cortisol levels (HPA) required to impact WM

Question 42

Article #4 - “Amygdala response..." Conclusions

Answer 42

(* Used prior fMRI data of amygdala activity while viewing negative images to predict PTSD symptoms after a terrorist attack * Greater amygdala activity to negative images predicted higher PTSD symptoms after a terrorist attack (Boston Marathon bombing).) * Amygdala activity when reacting to negative images * More activity ---> more PTSD after bombing * Hippocampus activity when regulating emotional reactions * More activity ----> less PTSD after bombing * Hippocampus activity was no longer correlated with PTSD symptoms after the bombing * Amygdala activity was still strongly correlated with PTSD symptoms * Helps show that PTSD symptoms in response to the bombing were best predicted by pre-existing amygdala reactivity * Evidence that pre-existing differences in amygdala reactivity makes people more vulnerable to developing PTSD after a traumatic event (this evidence is rare)