exam 2 Flashcards
(149 cards)
1
Q
memory
A
retention of information or experiences over time
2
Q
3 stages of memory processing
A
encoding, storage, retrieval
3
Q
memory encoding
A
process by which info gets into memory storage
4
Q
divided attention
A
concentrating on more than one activity at a time
5
Q
sustained attention (vigilance)
A
the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
6
Q
executive attention
A
directing attention to higher-level cognitive functioning
7
Q
levels of processing
A
a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep, deeper processing producing better memory
8
Q
elaboration
A
the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding
9
Q
dual-code theory
A
memory for pictures is better than memory for words because pictures are stored as both image and visual codes
10
Q
storage
A
how information is retained over time and how it is represented in memories
11
Q
Atkinson-Shiffron theory
A
sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
12
Q
sensory memory
A
holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant
13
Q
echoic memory
A
auditory sensory memory
14
Q
short term memory
A
limited capacity memory system in which info is usually retained for as long as 30 seconds
15
Q
working memory
A
allows individuals to hold info temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks
15
Q
chunking
A
grouping info that exceeds the memory span and can be remembered as single units, makes large amount of info manageable
16
Q
rehearsal
A
conscious repetition of information
17
Q
phonological loop
A
briefly store speech-based info about sounds of language in working memory
18
Q
visuo-spatial sketchpad
A
stores visual and spatial info in working memory
19
Q
central executive
A
integrates info from phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad and long term memory
20
Q
long-term memory
A
relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of info for a long time
21
Q
episodic memory
A
retention of info about where, when, and what of life’s happenings
22
Q
semantic memory
A
a person’s knowledge about the world
23
Q
implicit memory
A
memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience
24
procedural memory
memory for skills, part of implicit memory
25
priming
activation of info that is already stored to help them remember new info better and faster
26
schemas
a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret info
27
connectionism of parallel distributed processing (PDD)
the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons
28
where is explicit memory stored
hippocampus and limbic system
29
where is implicit memory stored
cerebellum, cerebral cortex
30
retrieval
info retained in memory comes out of storage
31
serial position effect
tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than the middle
32
recall
memory task in which the person must retrieve previously learned info
33
recognition
a memory task in which the person only has to identify learned items
34
encoding specificity
info present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
35
context-dependent memory
people remember better when they attempt to retrieve info in the same context in which they learned it
36
autobiographical memories
special form of episodic memories; a person's recollections of their life experiences
37
flashbulb memory
memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events
38
repression
a defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that the individual forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting
39
interference theory
people forget not because their memories are lost, but because other info gets in the way of what they want to remember
40
proactive interference
material learned earlier disrupts recall of material learned later
41
retroactive interference
material learned later that disrupts recall of info learned earlier
42
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory
43
retrospective memory
remembering the past
44
cognition
how info is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
45
thinking
manipulating info mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner
46
concepts
mental categories that are used to group objects events, and characteristics
47
prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they can compare (look for resemblance)
48
problem solving
finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
49
subgoal
intermediate goals that put us in a better position of reaching the final goal
50
algorithms
strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem
51
fixation
using prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh, new perspective
52
functional fixedness
when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a things usual functions
53
reasoning
mental ability of transforming info to reach conclusions
54
inductive reasoning
reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
55
deductive reasoning
reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance
56
decision making
involves evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
57
loss aversion
tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
58
confirmation bias
tendency to search for and use info that supports our ideas rather than refute them
59
hindsight bias
tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome
60
availability heuristic
a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
61
base rate neglect
the tendency to ignore info about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid info
62
representativeness heuristic
the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate info
63
mindfulness
being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities
64
open-mindedness
being receptive to other ways of looking at things
65
divergent thinking
produces many solutions to the same problem
66
convergent thinking
produces the single best solution to a problem
67
intelligence
an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experiences
68
eugenics
the belief in the possibility of improving the human species by discouraging reproduction among those with less desirable characteristics and enhancing reproduction among those with more desirable characteristics
69
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
70
reliability
the extent to which a test gives a reproducible, consistent measure of performance
71
standardization
developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms, or performance standards, for the test
72
mental age
person's level of mental developing relative to others
73
intelligence quotient (IQ)
an individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
74
culture-fair tests
intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased
75
heritability
proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in genes
76
giftedness
having high intelligence or superior talent in a particular area
77
intellectual disability
condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has low cognitive abilities and has difficulty adapting to everyday life
78
language
a form of communication based on a system of symbols
79
infinite generativity
ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences
80
phonology
a languages sound system
81
morphology
a languages rules for word formation
82
syntax
a languages rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
83
semantics
the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
84
pragmatics
the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said
85
linguistic relativity hypothesis
language determines the way we think
86
development
the pattern of continuity and change in characteristics that occurs throughout the course of life
87
cross-sectional designs
a number of people are assessed at one point in time
88
longitudinal study
assessed the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period
89
nature
biological inheritance
90
nurture
environmental and social experiences
91
resilience
person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
92
assimilation
people incorporate new info into preexisting schemas
93
accomodation
people change their schemas in response to new experience
94
sensorimotor stage
from birth to 2yr, coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions
95
object permanence
understanding that objects and events continue to exist when they cannot be seen
96
preoperational stage
2-7yrs, symbolic thought
97
concrete operational stage
7-11 yrs, uses operations, replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations
98
formal operational stage
11-15 yrs, continues through adulthood, making predictions, using logic
99
core knowledge approach
infants are born with domain specific knowledge systems
100
executive function
complex cognitive functions
101
temperament
an individuals behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding
102
infant attachment
close emotional bond between infant and caregiver
103
secure attachment
ways that infants use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
104
authoritarian parenting
strict punitive style
105
authoritarian parenting
collaborative, independence with limits
106
neglectful parenting
lack of involvement
107
permissive parenting
few limits on behavior
108
emerging adulthood
transitional period from adolescence to adulthood
109
gender
social and psychological aspects of one's experience as male, female, both, or neither
110
gender identity
a person's inner concept of themselves in relation to gender
111
gender role
roles that reflect society's expectations for how people of different genders should think, act, or feel
112
gender similarities hypothesis
the idea that people of different genders are much more similar than different
113
motivation
the forces that drives us to behave, think, and feel the way we do
114
instinct
the innate biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species
115
need
a physical or biological deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation
116
drive
an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need
117
homeostasis
the body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium
118
hierarchy of needs
human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, self-actualization
119
self-actualization
the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being- the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs
120
self-determination theory
all humans have 3 basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy
121
intrinsic motivation
motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun
122
extrinsic motivation
motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments
123
self-regulation
the process by which an organism effortfully controls its behavior in order to pursue important objectives
124
2-factor theory of emotion
emotion is determined by 2 factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
125
facial feedback hypothesis
the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions and reflect them
126
james-lange theory
emotions results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
127
cannon-bard theory
emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
128
personality
pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way a person adapts to the world
129
psychodynamic perspectives
theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious
130
id
the part of the person that Freud called the "it", consisting of unconscious drives; the individual's reservoir of sexual energy
131
ego
the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality
132
superego
the Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of the individual's behavior; what is referred to as conscience
133
defence mechanisms
tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
134
Oedipus complex
a boy's intense desire to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother
135
collective unconscious
the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind, shared by all human beings because of their common ancestral past
136
archetypes
emotionally laden ideas and images in the collective conscious that have rish and symbiotic meaning for all people
137
individual psychology
people are motivated by purposes and goals and that perfection, not pleasure, is thus the key motivator in life
138
humanistic perspectives
theoretical views stressing a person's capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities
139
unconditional positive regard
individual's need to be accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of their behavior
140
trait theories
theoretical views stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that tend to lead to characteristic responses
141
5 big factors of personality
5 broad traits thought to describe the main dimensions of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
142
subjective well-being
a person's assessment of their own level of positive affect relative to negative affect, and an evaluation of their life in general
143
social cognitive perspectives
theoretical views emphasizing conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals
144
self-efficacy
belief that one can master a situation and produce positive change
145
cognitive affective processing system (CAPS)
theoretical model for describing that individuals thoughts and emotions about themselves and the world affect their behavior and become linked in ways that matter to that behavior
146
reinforcement sensitivity theory
2 biological systems linked to learning associations between behaviors and rewards or punishers
147
self report tests
method of measuring personality characteristics that directly ask people whether specific items describe their personality traits
148
empirically keyed test
type of self-report test that presents many questionnaire items to 2 groups that are known to be different in some central way
