Exam 2 Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
What nitrogenous bases are purines (double ringed)
A
Adenine and Guanine
2
Q
What nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines (single ringed)
A
Cytosine, thymine, and uracil
3
Q
What is a gene
A
Segment of DNA that synthesizes a specific protein
4
Q
What are histones
A
What DNA wraps around so that it fits in the cell
5
Q
What is chromatin
A
Fine filamentous DNA material complexed with histones
6
Q
What are the two sides of a chromosome called
A
Sister chromatids
7
Q
What are chromatids joined by
A
A centromere
8
Q
What are the types of RNA
A
Messenger
Ribosomal
Transfer
9
Q
What is a genome
A
All the DNA in a 23 chromosome set
10
Q
What is the base triplet
A
Sequence of three DNA nucleotides that stand for one amino acid
11
Q
What is transcription and where does it occur
A
DNA to RNA
The nucleus
12
Q
What is a Codon
A
three base sequences in mRNA
13
Q
What is translation and where does it occur
A
RNA to protein
The cytoplasm
14
Q
What is post translational modification
A
Finalizing proteins in the Golgi
15
Q
What are the steps of DNA replication
A
DNA Helicase
DNA polymerase
DNA ligase
16
Q
What happens in DNA helicase
A
It separates the strands of DNA forming a replication fork
17
Q
What happens in DNA Polymerase
A
It moves along one strand and separates it to be made into RNA
18
Q
What happens in DNA Ligase
A
Puts the strand that wasn’t turned into RNA back together
19
Q
What is semiconservative replication
A
Each new DNA molecule contains old and new DNA
20
Q
what is the DNA damage response
A
Mechanisms in place to correct replication errors
21
Q
What are mutations
A
Changes in DNA structure due to replication errors or environmental factors
22
Q
What is the Synthesis phase
A
Cell replicates all nuclear DNA and duplicates centrioles
22
Q
What are the stages of interphase
A
G1
Synthesis
G2
G0
Mitotic phase
22
Q
What is the G1 phase
A
The cell grows and normal tasks are carried out
23
What is G2
Interval between DNA replication and cell division. The cell repairs replication errors, grows, and synthesizes enzymes that control division
24
What is G0
The phase where cells stop growing for a while. Some cells may permanently stop growing
25
What happens in cytokinesis
The division of cytoplasm into two separate cells
25
What are the stages of mitosis
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
26
What is a haploid cell
Cells containing half as many chromosomes as somatic cells
26
What is a diploid cell
A cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes
27
What are introns
Segments of protein removed before translation
27
What kind of cells are haploid
Sex or Germ
27
What kind of cells are diploid
Somatic
28
What is a tissue
A group of similar cells and cell products working together to perform a specific role in an organ
29
What are exons
The protein that gets translated
30
What is the matrix
Extracellular material
Where the growth of the cells start
31
What does the ectoderm do
Gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system
32
What does the mesoderm do
Becomes gelatinous tissue called mesenchyme
32
What is epithelial tissue
sheet of closely adhering cells
32
What are the primary germ layers of tissue
Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm
33
What does mesenchyme do
Give rise to cartilage and bone and blood
33
What is the basement membrane
Layer between an epithelium and underlying connective tissue
33
What are the functions of epithelial tissue
Protection, secretion, excretion, absorption, filtration, sensation
34
What does the endoderm do
Gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and respiratory tracts
34
What is the basal surface
The surface that faces the basement membrane
35
What is the apical surface
The surface that faces away from the basement membrane
36
What is the lateral surface
The surface in the middle of the Basal and Apical
37
Define the simple epithelia
It contains one layer of cells and touches the basement membrane
38
Define the simple squamous
Thin scaly cells that permit rapid diffusion or transport of substances
39
Define pseudostratified
Looks multilayered but all cells touch basement membrane. It secrets and propels mucus
39
Define simple cuboidal
Squarish cells that help with absorption and secretion. Also help with mucus production and movement
39
Where is epithelial tissue located
Inner lining of digestive tract, liver and other glands
40
Define stratified epithelia
More than one layer of cells and not all cells touch the basement membrane
40
Define simple columnar
Tall narrow cells, has oval nuclei in basal half of cell and helps with absorption and secretion
41
Define connective tissue
most abundant, widely distributed, and variable type of tissue in the body
41
Define keratinized
It has multiple layers
cells become scaly and flat at the top
Resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms
41
Define Nonkeratinized
Does not have a surface layer of dead cells
Resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens still
42
What are the protein fibers in connective tissue
Collagenous fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers
42
What are the functions of connective tissue
Binding organs
Support
Physical protection
immune protection
movement
storage
heat production
transport
43
What cells make up fibrous connective tissue
Fibroblasts, Macrophages, white blood cells, plasma, Mast, adipocytes
43
What is ground substance
Featureless substance in space surrounding cells
44
What is loose connective tissue
Mostly ground substance
Areolar or reticular
45
What are the types of loose connective tissue
Areolar, adipose, reticular
46
Define areolar tissue
Loosely organized fibers that exhibit all 6 types of cells. It is found in almost every part of the body
47
Define reticular tissue
A mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts that forms the framework of organs like the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow
48
What is plasma
Bloods ground substance
48
Where is dense connective tissue mainly found
Tendons and ligaments
49
Define dense connective tissue
Collagen fibers are densely packed, and the fibers are parallel.
50
What do white blood cells do
Fight infections
51
What do red blood cells do
Carry oxygen and carbon
52
What clots blood
Platelets
53
What is excitability
The ability to respond to stimuli by changing membrane potential
54
Define nervous tissue
Specialized for communication by electrical and chemical signals
55
What does nervous tissue consist of
Neurons and neuroglia
56
What do neurons do
Detect stimuli, respond quickly, and transmit coded information
57
What does neuroglia do
protect and assist neurons
58
What are striations
Alternating dark and light bands
59
Describe skeletal muscle tissue
Voluntary movement
Has striations
60
Describe cardiac muscle
Involuntary
Has one nucleus
61
Describe smooth muscle
It makes up the organs
Has one nucleus
Involuntary
62
What are cell junctions
Connections between two cells
63
What is a tight junction
Zipper like interlocking between two adjacent cells using transmembrane cell adhesion proteins
64
What are endocrine glands and what do they do
Glands that have no ducts
They secrete hormones into the blood
65
What is a desmosome
A patch that holds cells together
66
What is a hemidesmosome
half a desmosome that anchors basal cells of an epithelium to an underlying basement membrane
67
What is a gap junction
Cellular communication
68
What are exocrine glands
Glands that maintain their contact with surface of epithelium using a duct
69
What do Serous glands do
Secrete thin watery secretions
Ex. Milk, tears, digestive juices
70
What do mucous glands secrete
Produce mucin to make mucus
71
What is mucin
A glycoprotein that absorbs water to make mucus
72
What are mixed glands
Glands that have both serous and mucous glands
73
What do eccrine glands do
release their products through exocytosis
74
What is holocrine secretion
Cells accumulate a product and the entire cell disintegrates
74
What is hyperplasia
Cell multiplication
Growth as a child
75
What is hypertrophy
Enlargement of cell size
Muscle growth
76
What are stem cells
Undifferentiated cells that have not performed a specific function
77
What is regeneration
Replacement of dead or damaged cells using the same type of cell
78
What is fibrosis
Replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue
78
What is atrophy
Shrinkage of tissue through cell loss
78
What is necrosis
Pathological tissue death
79
What is infarction
Sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
79
What is gangrene
Necrosis due to lack of blood supply
80
What are the functions of skin
Resistance to trauma and infection
Vitamin D synthesis
Sensation
Thermoregulation
81
What does it mean to be avascular
Lack blood vessels
81
What are tactile cells
Touch receptor cells associated with dermal nerve fibers
81
What are melanocytes
The cells that synthesize pigment melanin that shields DNA from UV
82
What are dendritic cells
Phagocytic immune cells that guard against toxins
83
What is the stratum basal
The layer of stem cells and keratinocytes on the basement membrane
84
What is the stratum corneum
Up to 30 layers of dead keratinized cells on the epidermis
85
What is the papillary layer
The zone of areolar tissue in and near dermal papillae
85
What is the reticular layer
Deep thick layer of dermis composed of irregular tissue beneath skin
86
What is the hypodermis
Layer of connective tissue beneath skin
87
What is eumelanin
Dark melanin that breaks down slower and is more spread out in keratinocytes
88
What is pheomelanin
Light melanin that gets clumped near the keratinocyte nucleus
89
What does hard keratin make up
Hair and nails
89
What does soft keratin make up
skin
90
What is the shaft
The part of the hair follicle that is above the skin
91
What is the bulb
The hair root that is in the dermis or hypodermis
92
What is the hair matrix
growth center for hair
93
What are the layers of hair
The medulla
The cortex
The cuticle
94
Describe the layers of hair
The medulla- core of loosely arranged cells and air spaces
The cortex- bulk of the hair
Cuticle- Outermost region consisting of multiple layers of thin scaly cells
95
What is the epithelial root sheath
Extension of the epidermis lying adjacent to hair root
96
What is the connective tissue root sheath
Surrounds the epithelial root sheath
97
What is the nail plate
hard part of the nail
98
What is the nail fold
Surrounding skin separated from the nail by the nail groove
99
What is the nail bed
Skin underneath nail plate
100
What is the hyponychium
Epidermis of nail bed
101
What is the nail matrix
The growth zone at proximal end of nail
102
What is the cuticle
Narrow zone of dead skin that overhangs the proximal end of the nail
103
What are apocrine sweat glands and where do they exist
Sweat glands that arise during puberty and respond to stress and sexual stimulation
Groin, anal, axilla, areola, and beard
104
What are eccrine sweat glands
Normal sweat glands that produce sweat
105
What is the sebaceous gland
glands that produce sebum and keep hair from being dry and brittle
105
What is diaphoresis
Sweating with wetness of skin
106
What are ceruminous glands
modified apocrine glands found in external ear canal
106
What are mammary glands
Milk producing glands developed in females during pregnancy
107
Describe second degree burns
Involves part of the dermis and can take up to several months to heal
appears red, tan or white and blisters
107
Describe third degree burns
Involves all of the dermis and sometimes deeper tissues
Often requires skin grafts fluid replacement, infection control
108
Describe first degree burns
Burns that involve only the epidermis
usually heals within days and only shows some redness
109
What roles does the skeletal system have
Support
Protection
Movement
Electrolyte balance
Acid-base balance
Blood formation
Hormone stress
110
Describe bone tissue
Connective tissue with the matrix hardened by calcium, phosphate and other minerals
110
What are the hardening processes of bone
Mineralization and calcification
111
What is an epiphysis
Enlarged end of long bone
111
What is spongy bone
Loosely organized bone tissue
111
What is compact bone
Dense outer shell of bone that houses marrow and spongy bone
112
What is a diaphysis
Shaft that provides leverage
112
What is the epiphyseal line
Remanent of childhood growth zone
112
What are lacunae
Cavities where osteocytes reside
112
What are osteoblasts
Bone forming cell in the endosteum and inner layer of periosteum
112
What are osteocytes
Former osteoblasts trapped in the matrix they made
112
What is canaliculi
Channels that connect lacunae
112
What is ossification and osteogenesis
The formation of bone
112
What are osteoclasts
Bone dissolving cells on the bone surface
113
What is the order in how bones form
Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes
114
Define intramembranous
Bone grows between two membranes
Forms flat bones
115
What is appositional growth
Deposition of new tissue at the bone surface
115
Define endochondral
Bone develops from hyaline cartilage
Forms long bones
116
What is Mineral deposition
The crystallization process in which calcium and phosphate are taken from blood and deposited in bone
117
What is hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia
Calcium deficiency
Calcium excess
118
What is calcitriol
Active form of vitamin D
118
What three hormones regulate bone
Calcitriol
Calcitonin
Parathyroid hormone
119
What is parathyroid hormone
Raises calcium-blood levels in response to low calcium level in blood
