Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

Anemia

Answer 1

Condition where you don’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to the body’s tissues. Can lead to fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath. BODY ISNT GETTING ENOUGH OXYGEN

Answer 2

Commons disorder of the kidneys in OLDER ADULTS (Sometimes confused with renal cell carcinoma) Cysts may be single, multiple, unilateral, bilateral and small (less than 1 cm in diameter, though they may grow larger) Cysts are usually asymptomatic, don’t affect renal function; may cause flank pain, hematuria, infection and hypertension

Answer 3

Presence of blood in the urine.

Answer 4

These cysts are characteristic of End-stage renal disease (ESRD) in individuals who have been on prolonged dialysis Usually asymptomatic, but may experience hematuria Adenomas and occasionally adenosarcomas may develop in walls of the cysts

Answer 5

Benign (non cancerous) tumors that form in glandular tissue Most common cause of endocrine disorders, in epithelial lining in colon, thyroid and pituitary gland

Answer 6

Rare form of malignant tumor that typically affects uterus or retroperitoneal space, though it can occur in other parts of the body

Answer 7

Damage to structures WITHIN the kidney COMMON CAUSE: Acute Tubular Necrosis - prolonged renal ischemia -exposure to nephrotoxic drugs, metals, organic solvents -intratubular obstruction resulting from hemogloinuria, myoglobin urea, myeloma light chains, or uric acid casts -acute renal disease -Acute glomerulonephritis -Acute Pyelonephritis -Injury to tubular structures Signs & Symptoms: PRIMARY SIGN = -sharp decrease in glomerular filtration -stage 3 (moderate damage) is identified with a GFR of 30 to 59 mL/min/1.73 m^2. Causes of decreased GFR (glomerular filtration rate) and epithelial injury include: -intrarenal vasoconstriction -decreased hydrostatic pressure in glomeruli -changes in arterial tone by tubuloglomerular feedback -decreased capillary permeability in glomeruli -increased tubular hydrostatic pressure, secondary to obstruction -backflow of glomerular filtrate into interstitium

Answer 8

Marked decrease in renal blood flow MOST COMMON CAUSE OF ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY. (Results from Issues above the kidneys!!) Causes: hypovolemia, decreased vascular filling, heart failure & cardiogenic shock, decreased renal perfusion. Each of these conditions may result from various events Hypovolemia: -hemorrhage -dehydration -excessive loss of gastrointestinal tract fluids (diarrhea, vomit) -excessive loss of fluid due to burn injury Decreased vascular filling (causes vasodilation): -anaphylactic shock -septic shock Heart failure and cardiogenic shock Decreased renal perfusion -sepsis -vasoactive mediators -drugs (inappropriately given if volume is normal) -diagnostic agents (radiocontrast dye) Signs & Symptoms: -decreased urine output -abnormal elevation of blood urea nitrogen in relation to serum creatinine levels (normal ration is 10:1; acute kidney injury is indicated by 15:1 to 20:1) -low fractional excretion of sodium (<1%) suggests reduced urine output is due to decreased renal perfusion

Answer 9

Obstruction of urine outflow from the kidney (think: something is happening BEYOND the kidney) OCCURS IN: ureter, bladder, urethra MAY RESULT FROM: calculi (stones), scar tissue, tumors, infections, trauma, nerve dysfunction, or prostatic hyperplasia (MOST COMMON CAUSE). urinary tract obstructions usually don’t cause acute kidney injury unless one kidney is already damaged -bilateral ureteral obstruction -bladder outlet obstruction -urethral blockage Signs & Symptoms Primary sign to watch for is reduced urinary output, <0.3 mL/kg/h x 24 hours or Andria x 12 hours indicates injury. Other signs and symptoms for risk of injury include those for urinary tract obstruction: -small and weak stream -pain and pressure -abdominal distention -frequency of urination -hesitancy -straining when initiating urination -feeling of incomplete bladder emptying -overflowing continence

Answer 10

Obstruction of urine outflow from the kidney

Answer 11

Rate of blood flow through the glomerulus Test used to measure how well your kidneys are functioning by assessing how much blood passes through the glomeruli (tiny filters in the kidneys) per minute. Normal GFR is important sign that kidneys are working well.

Answer 12

125 mL/min; 90-120 mL/min/1.73m^2 for a healthy adult, it can vary with age

Answer 13

GFR below 60 mL/min/1.73m^2 for three months or more could indicate chronic kidney disease (CKD)

Answer 14

Fluid volume Blood pressure Metabolic waste and drug excretion Vitamin D conversion Acid-base balance Hormone synthesis

Answer 15

Transport urine from calyces (cup-shaped cavities that collect urine from renal pyramids before it passes into renal pelvis and then into ureter) to bladder

Answer 16

Voluntary activity; as urine volume in the bladder increased, the urine exerts pressure on the two bladder sphincters (internal & external) and stretch receptors in the bladder Pressure of 200-300 mL on sphincters and receptors sends nerve impulses to the brain, triggering the urge to urinate Bladder contracts and external sphincter relaxes, forcing urine out through the urethra Normal daily urine output is 1500 mL Each kidney contains 1-2 million nephrons

Answer 17

Regulates blood pressure, aided by water and electrolyte regulation in the kidneys -Aldosterone: steroid hormone, part of RAAS, and acts primarily to conserve sodium and water while excreting potassium

Answer 18

Ammonia is product of delaminating, which strips amino group from amino acid Urea and uric acid

Answer 19

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein hormone primarily produced by the kidneys (and in small amounts by the liver). It plays a crucial role in stimulating red blood cell (erythrocyte) production in the bone marrow.

Answer 20

Convert vit D to its active form Secrete bicarbonate Excrete or retain hydrogen Synthesize atrial natriuretic peptide , erythropoietin and renin

Answer 21

Renin is an enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells of the kidneys in response to low blood pressure, low sodium levels, or sympathetic nervous system activation. It plays a key role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

Answer 22

Bowman capsule - proximal convoluted tubules - loop of henle - distal convoluted tubes BPLD (Be careful, pizzas can try lifting hades during crappy times)

Answer 23

Loss of urinary control

Answer 24

Involuntary urination by a child after 4-5 years of age Nocturnal Enuresis = bed wetting

Answer 25

Loss of urine from pressure exerted on the bladder by coughing, sneezing, laughing, exercising, or lifting something heavy Occurs when sphincter muscle of the bladder is weakened (PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLES) Contributing factors: pregnancy , childbirth, menopause, cystocele, prostate removal, obesity , chronic coughing

Answer 26

Sudden, intense urge to urinate, followed by an involuntary loss of urine Causes: UTIs, bladder irritants, bowel conditions, smoking, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, injury, nervous system damage (Detruser muscle) Overactive bladder: urge I continue with no known cause (not a normal part of the aging process)

Answer 27

Caused by trauma or damage to the nervous system Detrusor Hyperreflexia: increased detrusor muscle contractility that occurs even though there is no sensation to avoid Urgency is generally absent

Answer 28

Occurs when symptoms of more than one type of urinary incontinence are experienced

Answer 29

Inability to empty the bladder or retention (feels bladder is full but cannot empty) -dribbling urine (leaking) and a weak urine stream Causes: bladder damage, urethral blockage, nerve damage, and prostate conditions CHRONIC OVERDISTENSION occurs because of a perceived inability to interrupt work to void that results in detrusor muscle areflexia and overflow incontintence

Answer 30

Occurs in older adults, especially people in nursing home who have physical or mental impairment that prevents toileting on time (cannot get to restroom fast enough) !!!!!!

Answer 31

Urinary incontinence resulting from a TEMPORARY CONDITION (ex: delirium) Clinical manifestations of UTI in the ELDERLY

Answer 32

Constitutes 90% of all cases Pinpoint hemorrhages in the bladder wall due to inflammation

Answer 33

5-10% of all cases: Hunner Ulcers/patches: red, bleeding areas on the bladder wall 5% experience symptoms of 2+ years and 5% develop end-stage disease where bladder hardens, capacity is low, and pain worsens

Answer 34

Pain in urinary tract, (worse with pressure), frequency and nocturia, urgency (often constant, worsened by stress), sexual dysfunction Diagnosis: history, exam, voiding tests, urodynamic testing, cystoscopy Curing the condition is rare, but individualized treatment is effective

Answer 35

Inflammation of the bladder If autoimmune —> interstitial cystitis = non-infectious chronic bladder inflammation that causes pain and pressure Manifestations: UTI Symptoms, abdominal pain. Pelvic pressure (dysuria) Patient with cystitis is more susceptible to recurrent UTI because of E-Coli Women sexually active at highest risk ( and at risk true to short urethra, compared to men, and opening or urethra is close to anus )

Answer 36

Non-infectious chronic bladder inflammation that causes pain and pressure

Answer 37

Painful or difficult urination; pain and stinging when urinating Causes: UTI Interstitial Cystitis Enlarged prostate (men) Vaginitis Kidney stones STIs Irritation or inflammation (soaps, etc)

Answer 38

Sever blood stream infection that originates from UTI and leads to systemic inflammatory respons syndrome (SIRS), potentially causing septic shock and multi-organ failure Bacterial invasion in urinary tract - ascends to kidneys (pyelonephritis) Manifestation: dysuria (painful urination), flank pain (pyelopnephritis), fever, chills, nausea, vomiting,

Answer 39

Acute or chronic infection that has reached one or both kidneys due to ascending UTI (E-Coli) usually by direct bacterial invasion of the lower urinary tract Costovertebral angle tenderness (where last rib meets spine, kidneys are in that spot) Kidneys become grossly edematous (edema, fluid in interstitial spaces) and fill with exudate (fluid), compressing renal artery and potentially developing abscesses or necrosis Complications: renal failure, recurrent UTIs and sepsis Manifestations: UTI symptoms, flank pain, and increased blood pressure Treatment: usual UTI treatments, long-term antibiotics (4-6 weeks) usually required

Answer 40

Presence of renal calculi, hard crystals composed of minerals that kidneys normally excrete Calculi - contain calcium and oxalate or phosphate Dehydration is main cause of kidney stones!!!!! Risk factors: pH changes, excessive concentration of insoluble salts in the urine, urinary stasis, family history, obesity, hypertension, and diet Manifestations: colicky pain in flank area that radiates to the lower abdomen and groin; bloody, cloudy or foul-smelling urine; dysuria, frequency, genital discharge, nausea, vomitting, fever, chills Ureteral stones: renal colicky pain and hematuria (blood in the urine) If develops chills and fever (signs of infection) —> notify provider immediately Treatment: strain all urine, increase fluid intake to 2.5-3.5 L; lithotripsy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy, ureterscopy, surgery, pain management, dietary changes, and physical activity

Answer 41

Abnormal dilation of the renal pelvis and the calyces of one or both kidneys due -bilateral renal movement indicates an obstruction in one of the ureters!! Causes: urolithiasis, tumors, benign prostatic hyperplasia, strictures, stenosis, and congenital urologic defects Manifestations: bloody, cloudy or foul smelling urine, dysuria, flank pain, colicky, Treatment: ureteral stents, nephrostomy tubes, and antibiotics

Answer 42

Severe intermittent cramping pain that occurs in waves due to spasms of a hollow organ (intestines, gallbladder, ureters, uterus)

Answer 43

Most frequently occurring kidney cancer in adults Risk factors: being male and smoking -metastasis (spread of cancer cells to distant organs or tissues) to the liver, lungs, bone, or nervous system is common Manifestations: asymptomatic, painless hematuria, abnormal urine color, dull and achy flank pain, urinary retentions, palpable mass over the affected kidney, (costoverterbral angle), unexplained weight loss, anemia, polycythemia

Answer 44

Types: transitional cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma Manifestations: PAINLESS HEMATURIA

Answer 45

Common non malignant enlargement of the prostate gland that occurs as men age Declining testosterone and increasing estrogen levels As prostate explains, it presses against the urethra and obstructs urine flow Manifestations: frequency, urgency, retention, difficulty initiating urination, weak urinary stream, dribbling urine, nocturia (frequent urination at night), bladder distension, overflow incontinence, and erectile dysfunction ( due to decrease in testosterone levels) Patients >50 have higher rises of developing UTI due to enlarged prostate Recurrent UTI can result in chronic bacterial prostatitis (inflammation or infection of prostate gland) IMAGINE an enlarge prostate, compresses the urethra (prostate impinging on urethra). “I can’t start a stream, and when I do, I dribble”

Answer 46

Genetic disorder; inherited. NUMEROUS GRAPE-LIKE CLUSTERS (fluid filled cysts) in both kidneys

Answer 47

Leading cause of acute renal failure Bilateral inflammatory disorder of the glomeruli that typically follows a streptococcal infection

Answer 48

Small filtering units of the kidneys

Answer 49

Sudden loss of renal function (often critically ill hospitalized patients) -Pre renal conditions: extremely low BP or blood volume (decreasing renal blood flow); cardiac dysfunction -Intrarenal conditions: reduced blood supply in kidneys, hemolytic uremic syndrome, renal inflammation, toxic injury (dyes—> intrinsic injury) -Post renal conditions: ureter obstruction, bilateral kidney stones, bladder obstruction/dysfunction (elderly patients are at a higher risk due to BPH) Risk factors: advanced age, autoimmune disorders, and liver disease Less than 400 ccs in 24hrs Phases: -Asymptomatic -Liguria -Diuretic phase -Recovery phase

Answer 50

-Asymptomatic -Oliguric (daily urine output <400 mL): electrolyte disturbances (potassium), fluid volume excess, AZOTEMIA = (excess urea and other nitrogen wastes in the blood), and metabolic acidosis -Diuretic Phase (daily urine output >5L): electrolyte disturbances, dehydration, and hypotension -recovery phase: glomerular function gradually returns to normal

Answer 51

Early stage —> LOW GFR AND ELEVATED SERUM UREA Four stages to AKI: 1.) initiation = as the injury is happening 2.) Oliguria = when urine output drops to less than 400 mLs in 24hr period and creatinine and serum urea increase 3.) Diuresis = when an increase urine output indicates glomerular filtration recovery has started 4.) Recovery = when improvement of kidney function occurs (this may take 3-12 months)

Answer 52

Gradual loss of renal function that is irreversible Causes: diabetes mellitus, hypertension, sickle cell disease systemic lupus erythematous, smoking, advancing age Treatment: dialysis is to remove excess fluids and wastes Erythropoietin is included in the treatment of tend stage renal disease (anemia)

Answer 53

Stage I: kidney damage present but GFR kids >90 Stage II: kidney damage worsens as the GFR falls (60-89) Stage III: kidney function is significantly impaired as GFR is between 30 and 59 Stage IV: kidney function is barely present with GFR dropping between 15 and 29 Stage V: kidney failure as the GFR drops to less than 15 or the patient begins dialysis

Answer 54

Partially digested semi liquid food mixture that forms in the stomach and moves to small intestine for further digestion and absorption

Answer 55

Difficulty swallowing Manifestations: choking, coughing, odynophagia —> weight loss Sensation of food stuck in the throat Think: malnourishment!! Epiglottis - affected flap in throat (esophagus)

Answer 56

Involuntary or voluntary forceful ejection of chyme from stomach through espophagus and out mouth

Answer 57

Involuntary or voluntary forceful ejection of chyme from stomach through espophagus and out mouth

Answer 58

Colon is churning Involuntary Wave-like contractions that occur along digestive tract to propel foods, liquids and chyme through the system

Answer 59

Inhalation/entry of food, liquid, saliva or other foreign material into airways (trachea and lungs) Causes serious damage and inflammation when SUPINE (laying flat), unconscious, or the vomiting or cough reflex is suppressed

Answer 60

Blood in the vomitus - has a characteristic “COFFEE GROUNDS” appearance resulting from protein in the blood being partially digested Dark tarry stool = Melena Yellow or green vomitus = presence of bile; occurs due to GI tract obstruction Treatment: antiemetic medications (drugs to prevent nausea or vomiting) oral or intravenous fluid replacement, correct electrolyte imbalance, and restore acid-base balance

Answer 61

Bright red blood If you see frank blood, it’s closer, higher up!!! If you see maroon/dark blood, its is further or lower!!!

Answer 62

Can’t see with naked eye

Answer 63

Swollen being in rectum and anus (similar to varicose veins) Sign of Hemorrhoids: Streaked blood

Answer 64

Stomach section protrudes upward through opening in diaphragm toward the lung Causes: weakening of the diaphragm muscles, frequently resulting from increased intrathoracic pressure or increased intra-abdominal pressure Risk factors: advanced age and smoking Manifestations: indigestion, heartburn, frequent belching, nausea, chest pain, strictures (abnormal narrowing of a passage or duct in the body,typically in blood vessels ), dysphagia, soft upper abdominal mass (protruding stomach pouch)

Answer 65

Chyme or bile periodically backs up from stomach into esophagus, irritating esophageal mucosa Manifestations: HEARTBURN (due to spasm) Often confused with angina and may warrant ruling our cardiac disease Complications: esophagitis, strictures, ulcerations, ESOPHAGEAL CANCER (most serious complication), chronic pulmonary disease Causes: foods (chocolate, caffeine, carbonated beverages, citrus fruit, tomatoes, spicy, fatty foods, peppermint), alcohol consumption, nicotine, hiatal hernia, obesity, pregnancy, certain medications (corticosteroids, beta blockers, calcium-channel blockers, anticholinergics), nasogastric intubation, and delayed gastric emptying Treatment: avoid triggers, avoid clothing that is restrictive around waist, eat small frequent meals, high fowler’s positioning 2-3 hours after meals, weight loss, stress reduction elevate the head of bead approx. 6 inches, antacids, acid-reducing agents, mucosal barrier agents, herbal therapies (licorice, slippery elm, chamomile), surgery Barrett’s Esophagus = caused by GERD; chronic acid reflux, increases risk of developing esophageal adenocarcinoma (cancer)

Answer 66

Vomiting and anorexia (loss of appetite)

Answer 67

Inflammation of stomach’s mucosal lining

Answer 68

Most common cause of CHRONIC GASTRITIS Lifestyle behaviors (smoking, stress) may increase susceptibility Causes: organisms transmitted through food and water contamination, long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, excessive alcohol use, severe stress, autoimmune conditions, and other chronic diseases Complications of chronic gastritis: peptic ulcers, gastric cancer, and hemorrhage

Answer 69

Lesions affecting stomach lining or duodenum Develops from imbalance between destructive forces and protective mechanisms Duodenal cancers = associated with H. Pylori infections -present with epigastric pain (occurs 30 mins to 2 hours after eating or when the stomach is empty in the middle of the night)

Answer 70

Develop due to major physiological stressor on body due to local tissue ischemia (reduced blood flow to tissue or organ), tissue acidosis, bile slats entering the stomach, and decreased GI motility Most frequent form in stomach; hemorrhage (hematemesis) is first indicator as ulcer develops rapidly and is masked by primary problem Complications: GI hemorrhage, obstruction, perforation, and peritonitis Diagnosis: H. Pylori breath test, and stool analysis (H. Pylori and occult blood)

Answer 71

Common condition that varies based on size, but affects both genders and all ethnic groups relatively equally - cholecystitis = inflammation or infection in the biliary system cause by calculi (kidney stones) Manifestations: Upper quadrant pain!!! Nausea, vomiting, jaundice, fever, biliary colic, abdominal distension, leukocytosis

Answer 72

Liver, gallbladder, network of bile ducts that transport bile from liver to gallbladder and small intestine

Answer 73

Inflammation of liver/biliary system Causes: infections (usually viral), alcohol, medications (acetaminophen [Tylenol], anti-seizure agents, antibiotics), or autoimmune disease ***Viral hepatitis is CONTAGIOUS but most will recover with sufficient time Typical Scenario: Pt with flu-like symptoms and abdominal pain. Multiple tattoos, piercings, or IV drug abuse - jaundice = liver disease —> due to excessive amount of bilirubin in the blood stream Chronic hepatitis = longer than 6 months Fulminant hepatitis = uncommon, rapidly progressing form that can lead to liver failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or death within 3 weeks

Answer 74

Chronic, progressive, irreversible, diffuse damage to the liver resulting in decreased liver function —> high risk of developing carcinoma Causes: -Hepatitis C infection and chronic alcohol abuse, most FREQUENT causes of cirrhosis in U.S. -Hepatitis A is the type of hepatitis transmitted through fecal-oral route Treatment: paracentesis (medical procedure used to remove excess fluid from peritoneal cavity, space around abdominal organs, via needle or catheter), avoid alcohol, drugs and hepatotoxic medications

Answer 75

Inflammation of pancreas, acute or chronic Causes: gallstones, cholelithiasis (ACUTE), alcohol abuse (CHRONIC) -releases insulin, amylase and lipase (these 3 start from digestion) STOP FEEDING THESE PATIENTS!!! - this will lower their pain -need artificial nutrition, administer intravenous nutrition Pancreatic injury = causes pancreatic enzymes to leak into pancreatic tissue, resulting in edema, vascular damage, hemorrhage, and necrosis

Answer 76

Stool in large intestine longer than usual, increasing the amount of water removed

Answer 77

Most malnourished patient to care for

Answer 78

Medical emergency Complications: perforation, pH imbalances, fluid disturbances, shock, and death Manifestations: abdominal distension (swelling of abdomen), abdominal cramping, colicky pain, nausea, vomiting, constipation, diarrhea, decreased or absent bowel sounds, restlessness, diaphoresis, tachycardia Treatment: correcting fluid, electrolyte, and pH imbalances

Answer 79

Infection Complications: peritonitis Manifestations: sharp abdominal pain develops, gradually intensifies (over about 12-24 hrs), and becomes localized to the lower right quadrant of abdomen (McBurney point) -rebound tenderness Pain may occur anywhere in abdomen; will temporarily subside if the appendix ruptures, and then pain will return and escalate Indications of peritonitis = abdominal rigidity, tachycardia, hypotension Laparoscopy - aids in diagnosis

Answer 80

Inflammation of peritoneum (thin tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the abdominal organs) -thick sticky exudate that bonds nearby structures and temporarily seals them off -abscesses may form in an attempt to wall off the infections -peristalsis may slow down in a response to the inflammation, decreasing spread of toxins/bacteria Manifestations: abdominal rigidity (due to inflammation and abdominal muscle spasm) FEVER

Answer 81

Genetic anomaly; gluten-sensitive enteropathy: inherited, autoimmune, malabsorption disorder

Answer 82

Chronic inflammation of the GI tract, usually intestines Thought to be caused by a genetically associated AUTOIMMUNE state that has been activated by an infection -chiefly seen in women, Caucasian’s, persons of Jewish descent and smokers

Answer 83

COBBLESTONE APPEARANCE Involves inflammation of Full thickness of intestinal wall and ulcerations Form fissures divided by nodules Damaged intestinal wall loses the ability to digest and absorb Manifestations: right lower quadrant cramping, pain)

Answer 84

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes inflammation and ulceration of the COLON (large intestine) and RECTUM. Progressive condition of rectum and colon mucosa (only) not full thickness usually develops in 20s-30s Manifestations: bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain Unlike Crohn’s disease, it is typically limited to colon and rectum

Answer 85

Pouches that protrude from wall of colon; Outwardly bulging pouches of the intestinal wall that occur when mucosa sections or large intestine submucosa layers herniate through a weakened muscular layer Thought to be caused by low-fiber diet and poor bowel habits, resulting in chronic constipation Diverticulosis: asymptomatic diverticular disease, multiple diverticula present

Answer 86

Pouches/sacks burst leading to peritonitis; diverticula become enflamed, usually because of retained fecal matter (often asymptomatic until it becomes serious) Manifestations: left lower quadrant cramping

Answer 87

Mouth = gateway Typical scenario: one or more painless, whitish thickenings that develop into a nodule or an ulcerative lesion that persists, does not heal, and bleeds easily Risk factors: hygiene, chronic irritation

Answer 88

Squamous cell carcinoma in distal esophagus Most common in men

Answer 89

Very common and fatal in the U.S. and worldwide; often asymptomatic until advanced; malignant tumor that develops in colon (large intestine) **Ascending colon —> occult blood in stool **Descending Colon—> change in shape of stool (narrow stool) Routine screening can improve prognosis including: -high sensitivity fecal occult blood test every year -flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years -colonoscopy every 10 years Manifestations: lower abdominal pain and tenderness, blood in the stool (occult or frank), diarrhea, constipation, intestinal obstruction, narrow stools, unexplained anemia (iron deficiency), and unintentional weight loss Treatment: removal during colonoscopy

Answer 90

Occurs as a secondary tumor that has metastasized from the breast, lung or other GI structures Causes of primary tumors: chronic cirrhosis and hepatitis

Answer 91

Adenocarcinoma (ulcerative lesion) Other risk factors: low-fiber diet, constipation, family history, H. Pylori infections chronic atrophic gastritis, and gastric polyps

Answer 92

Adenocarcinoma = malignant tumor that originates from glandular epithelial cells. It is the most common type of cancer in various organs, including colon, lungs, breasts, pancreas, prostate, stomach, and esophagus

Answer 93

Reduced or completely blocked blood flow to a tissue or organ

Answer 94

Address underlying cause, manage fluid and electrolyte balance, renal replacement therapy as needed Patients often need restriction of POTASSIUM AND SODIUM- RICH FOODS Monitor kidney function, monitor vital signs, monitor urine output, prevent and treat infections, ensure adequate hydration, monitor nephrotoxic drug intake (drugs that can cause kidney damage)

Answer 95

Multiple cysts in the ovaries —> female 30 years of age —> hirsutism —> amenorrhea —> INFERTILITY

Answer 96

Abnormal amounts of protein in the urine, sign of kidney dysfunction

Answer 97

Pregnancy occurring outside the uterus

Answer 98

Weight gain - proteinuria (Pregnancy induced hypertension is high blood pressure that develops after 20 weeks of pregnancy)

Answer 99

Complete cessation (stopping/ending) of the menstruation cycle due to decreased estrogen secretion

Answer 100

Prolonged, painful erection, which is a urologic emergency if lasting longer than 4 hours -not a result of sexual stimulation

Answer 101

Abnormal rotation of the testes on the spermatic cord MEDICAL EMERGENCY Manifestations: sudden scrotal edema and pain

Answer 102

Absence of menstruation in which the woman experiences 3 or more missed menses Test used to anticipate: MRI

Answer 103

Painful menstruation

Answer 104

Endometrium grows in areas outside the uterus Most commonly grows in the fallopian tubes, ovaries, and peritoneum, but the tissue can grow anywhere in the body -the abnormal endometrial tissue continues to act as it normally would during menstruation -blood becomes trapped and irritates the surrounding tissue Complications: pain, cysts, scarring, adhesions, infertility Manifestations: dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, pelvic pain, infertility, and pain during or after intercourse

Answer 105

Abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding… more than just heavy period. (May be a sign of an underlying condition)

Answer 106

Yeast infection caused by the common fungus Candida albicans Imbalance often occurs in the presence of vaginal pH changes Causes: antibiotic therapy, bubble baths, feminine products, decreased immune response, and increased glucose in the vaginal secretions Not sexually transmitted Manifestations: thick, white vaginal discharge that resembles cottage cheese, vaginal and Labial itching and burning, white patches on the vaginal wall, dysuria, and painful sexual intercourse

Answer 107

Infection of the female reproductive system; bacteria usually ascend from the vagina Complications: reproductive structure obstructions, peritonitis, abscesses, septicemia, adhesions, strictures, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancies, infertility Manifestations: indications of infection, pain or tenderness in the pelvis, lower abdomen or lower back; abnormal vaginal and cervical discharge; bleeding after sexual intercourse; painful sexual intercourse; urinary frequency; dysuria; dysmenorrhea; amenorrhea; AUB; anorexia; and nausea and vomiting

Answer 108

Infections that can be contracted through sexual contact -some can also be transmitted form mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth as well as through blood contact

Answer 109

Chlamydia trachomatis: intracellular parasite that requires a host cell to reproduce -the most commonly reported STI in the United States -can be transmitted through sexual contact and from mother to child during childbirth Complications: NEONATAL CONJUNCTIVITIS Treatment: antibiotics, screening, and treating sexual partners

Answer 110

Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, an aerobic bacterium with many drug-resistant strains Transmissible through sexual contact and from mother to infant during childbirth Complications -is contagious even if they have no outward symptoms! Complications: neonatal conjunctivitis Treatment: antibiotic therapy (patients are not restricted from engaging in sexual activity after their blood tests and genital swabs are negative) Manifestations: white blisters that darken and disappear…

Answer 111

Ulcerative infection caused by treponema pallidum, a spirochete that requires a warm, moist environment to survive - transmitted from skin or mucous membrane contact with chancres and from the mother to child through the plancental barrier

Answer 112

Stage 1: primary syphilis -1+ painless chancres form at site 2-3 weeks AFTER infection -often go unnoticed and disappear about 4-6 weeks later, even without treatment -bacteria become dormant and no other symptoms are present -CONTAGIOUS, but may not test positive, testing should be repeated at a later date Stage 2: secondary syphilis -occurs about 2-8 weeks after the first chancres form -manifestations: GENERALIZED, nonpruritic, brown-red; malaise; fever and patchy hair loss -will test positive (if untreated), and is CONTAGIOUS, especially with direct contact with the rash Stage 3: latent or tertiary syphilis -begins when secondary symptoms disappear and lasts 1-4 years -infection spread to brain, nervous system, heart, skin and bones; can last for years -complications: blindness, paralysis, dementia, cardiovascular disease, pathologic fractures, and death -in utero, fetuses are protected by Langhans layer for first 4 months, so screening and treating the mother prior can decrease likelihood of fetus contracting the infection -untreated, may lead to fetal demise or defect affecting the bone, liver, lungs, and nerves -antibiotic therapy

Answer 113

Two forms: HSV type 1: typically occurs above the waist and manifests as a cold sore HSV type 2: typically occurs below the waist Complications: spontaneous abortions, encephalitis, brain damage Both types are characterized by recurrent episodes of lesions The virus causes an initial infection at the entry site and then the virus travels along the dermatome to the nerve root where it remains protected and DORMANT until the next outbreak, which will occur at the same site (patients do not develop immunity after the first infection) The lesions first appear as a vesicle surrounded by erythema Vesicles rupture, leaving a painful ulcerative lesion with watery exudate Crust forms over the ulcer, and it heals spontaneously in 3-4 weeks Recurrent heroes genitals: reactivation of the virus and manifestations

Answer 114

In men, the organism primarily resides in the urethra and causes no symptoms In women, the organism in the vagina and becomes symptomatic when vaginal microbial imbalance occurs Manifestations: excessive odorous, frothy, white or yellow-green vaginal discharge; vagina and vulva irritation; itching; painful intercourse; and dysuria

Answer 115

Most common malignancy in women, second leading cause of cancer death in women BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes Manifestations: asymptomatic; mass in the breast or axillary that is hard, has uneven edges, and is usually painless (painless lump in the first clinical manifestations) Diagnosis: monthly self-breast examinations, mammogram, biopsy

Answer 116

Almost all cervical cancers are caused by HPV = genital warts Manifestations: asymptomatic; continuous vaginal discharge; AUB between menstruation, after intercourse, or after menopause

Answer 117

Cancer in the uterus; Exact cause is unknown Manifestations: abnormal painless vaginal bleeding, no bloody vaginal discharge, Pelvic pain, weight loss, palpable abdominal mass, pain during sexually intercourse

Answer 118

Ninth most frequent cancer in women and fifth leading cause of cancer death Risk factors: defects on BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes Diagnosis: CA 125 levels and biopsy

Answer 119

Regulates emotion, pain, and body temp It acts as a signal relaying bridge between endocrine and nervous system (multiple body systems and pituitary gland) Controls release of hormones from the pituitary gland and influences several vital processes.

Answer 120

Excess of growth hormone (ADH), usually due to benign tumor (adenocarcinoma) of the pituitary gland Leads to abnormal growth of bones and tissues (hands, feet, facial features) Abnormally large hands and feet, bulbous nose, broad face, and a protruding jaw

Answer 121

Signaling molecules or hormones that act locally on cells other than those that produce the hormone

Answer 122

Secretes 6 main hormones ( GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, prolactin) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) & Follicle-Stimulating hormone (FSH) are gonadotropins produced by the anterior pituitary gland Play crucial roles in reproductive system

Answer 123

The hypothalamic-pituitary- target cell system

Answer 124

Used to asses functionality of endocrine glands by measuring how they respond to stimulation Evaluates whether an endocrine glands is capable of producing the appropriate hormones when prompted by a specific stimulus

Answer 125

Because cortisol levels fluctuate, collecting a sample over time will be the most accurate

Answer 126

Physiological process where output of a system amplifies or enhances the original stimulus, leading to an increased response (escalating effect) Example: increase in prolactin secretion that occurs with more frequent breastfeeding

Answer 127

Regulatory mechanism in which change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change, ultimately bringing the system back to a state of balance or homeostasis. Essential for maintenance of stable conditions in the body (regulating body temp, hormone levels, and other vital functions)

Answer 128

Results from severe untreatedcongenital hypothyroidism (deficiency in T3 and T4, which are essential for normal growth, development and metabolism) Developmental delays and various physical and mental impairments (dwarfism, broad flat nose, thick tongue, large protruding abdomen) Causes: iodine deficiency,

Answer 129

Local. Paracrine hormones or signaling molecules are released by a cell and affect nearby cells within the same tissue or organ; travel short distances (local) to target cells in the same tissue or surrounding areas. Act locally without entering the blood stream

Answer 130

When the cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to receptors on its own surface, affecting the same cell that released the signal

Answer 131

Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. Cortisol involves immune suppression (reduced inflammation and immune response), -anti inflammatory effects = inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis; prostaglandins are lipid compounds involved in inflammation, and by inhibiting their production, cortisol helps reduce inflammation. -moderate insulin resistance

Answer 132

Severe form of hypothyroidism (under active thyroid) Symptoms: enlarged tongue, Bradycardia (slow heart rate), voice changes Treatment: synthetic thyroid hormone replacement in form of T3 and T4

Answer 133

Excess T3 and T4 produced Increased metabolism Symptoms: increased appetite, weight loss

Answer 134

Master gland; Secretes Several Hormones: TSH, growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin melanocyte-stimulating hormone, antidiuretic hormone, and oxytocin

Answer 135

Basal (base) part of diencephalon (part of brain located between cerebrum and brain stem), regulating the pituitary gland and connects the nervous and endocrine systems Monitor hormone, nutrient, and ion levels Regulates the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland (hypothalamic-pituitary axis)

Answer 136

Alpha cells = secrete glucagon when serum glucose levels fall Beta Cells = secrete insulin when serum glucose levels increase and amylin to enhance insulin Delta Cells = secrete somatostatin, which regulates insulin and glucagon PP (pancreatic polypeptide) cells = secrete pancreatic polypeptide which regulates pancreatic enzyme secretion and influences appetite. Epsilon cells = secrete ghrelin, which stimulates hunger

Answer 137

Produce: T3 (Triiodothyronine) T4 (Thyroxine), & calcitonin T3, T4 - regulate cellular metabolism and growth/development Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulation hormone (TSH), which stimulates T3 and T4. - iodine is required to synthesize thyroid hormones Calcitonin - regulates serum calcium levels, inhibiting osteoclast activity (decreases calcium release from the bone) and stimulating osteoblast activity (increase calcium deposits in the bone)

Answer 138

Location: Posterior surface of thyroid Secretes PTH (parathyroid hormone) = regulates serum calcium levels (works opposite of calcitonin); it is secreted when calcium levels drop -PTH INCREASES serum calcium levels by increasing OSTEOCLAST activity (increases calcium release from the bone) as well as increasing absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys

Answer 139

Locations: each kidney Medulla: inner portion that produces epinephrine and norepinephrine Cortex: outer portion that produces steroids - -Mineralocorticoids = aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium and water -Glucocorticoids = cortisol, which increases serum glucose levels -Gonadocorticoids = sex hormones, secreted in minimal amounts in both sexes

Answer 140

Pituitary gland does not produce sufficient amounts of some or all of its hormones Causes: -DWARFISM (deficient levels of growth hormone, somatotropin) -Diabetes insipidus = excessive fluid excretion in the kidneys (increased urination) caused by deficient antidiuretic hormone levels (ADH)

Answer 141

Pituitary gland secretes excessive amounts of one or all of the pituitary hormones, most commonly caused by tumors secreting hormone or hormone-like substances Causes: -GH is an anabolic agent -GIGANTISM = tall stature caused by excessive growth hormone prior to puberty -ACROMEGALY = increased bone size caused by excessive growth hormone in adulthood after fusion of epiphyseal plates of long bones (Pituitary Adenoma) -Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone = increased renal water retention caused by excessive antidiuretic hormone (hyponatremia) dt increase Na secretion and fluid retention -Hyperprolactinemia = excessive prolactin that results in menstrual dysfunction and galactorrhea -Cushing’s syndrome = excessive cortisol that results from the increased ACTH levels -Hyperthyroidism = hypermetabolic state caused by excessive thyroid hormones from increased TSH

Answer 142

Group of conditions characterized by hyperglycemia from defects in insulin production, insulin action or both -impaired insulin production or actions result in abnormal carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism because of the glucose transportation issue Complications: hyperglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis (metabolic) (dt the breakdown of fats) —> ketones in urine, acetone breath, flushing, rapid deep breathing, tachycardia), hypoglycemia —-> diaphoresis, parlor, tremors, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetic retinopathy, blindness, kidney disease, nephropathy, amputation, delayed healing, pregnancy complications, and peripheral neuropathy Manifestations: hyperglycemia, polyuria, polyphagia, polydipsia, weight loss, fatigue, Diagnosis: history, physical examination, urinalysis, fasting blood glucose test, oral glucose tolerance test, random blood glucose test, hemoglobin A I C (over past 2-3 months), blood pressure measurement, and cholesterol panel

Answer 143

Excessive thirst (Diabetes mellitus)

Answer 144

Excessive hunger or increased appetite (Diabetes mellitus)

Answer 145

Previously called insulin-dependent and juvenile onset; it develops when the body’s immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells (Autoimmune) -MUST HAVE INSULIN -usually strikes CHILDREN (although disease can occur at any age) -Stress: increases glucocorticoids —> counteracts insulin function —> increase blood glucose levels CANNOT BE PREVENTED MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO INFECTION (SKIN, UTI, VAGINAL INFECTION) ***GLUCAGON (increases blood glucose by facilitating the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver) vs INSULIN (decreases blood glucose)

Answer 146

Previously called non-insulin dependent adult-onset In adults, type 2 accounts for 90-95% of all newly diagnosed cases Usually begins as INSULIN RESISTANCE Risk Factors: advancing age, obesity, family history of DM, history of gestational diabetes, impaired glucose metabolism, physical inactivity, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders. -As condition progresses, supplemental insulin is often necessary as pancreatic production declines

Answer 147

Glucose intolerance during pregnancy

Answer 148

-cluster of risk factors occurring together: hyperglycemia, high blood pressure, hypercholesterolemia, and increased waist circumference Not a form of diabetes, but is related because it increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and stroke

Answer 149

Visible enlargement of the thyroid gland -usually painless, but may affect respiratory and gastrointestinal systems -can occur in hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and normal thyroid stress -iodine deficiency is the most common cause

Answer 150

Condition in which the thyroid does not produce sufficient amounts of the thyroid hormones (TH) = T3 & T4 —> (TSH Elevated) CONSTIPATION, DRY SKIN, WEIGHT GAIN, COLD INTOLERANCE -Relatively COMMON (1 out of 500 Americans has the condition) Risk factor: advancing age Causes: autoimmune thyroiditis (also called HASHIMOTO’S THYROIDITIS) and Iatrogenic Manifestations: low heart rate, fatigue, sluggishness, increased sensitivity to cold, constipation, pale and dry skin, hypercholesterolemia, unexplained weight gain, muscle weakness, heavier than normal menstrual periods, brittle finger nails, hair loss or thinning, Bradycardia, hypotension, depression MYXEDEMA = rare and life-threatening advanced hypothyroidism -manifestations: marked hypotension, respiratory depression, hypothermia, lethargy, non-pitting edema, and coma Diagnosis: serum thyroid hormone levels (decrease T3 and T4), increased serum TSH

Answer 151

Condition of excessive levels of thyroid hormones, resulting in a hypermetabolic state Causes: excessive iodine, GRAVES DISEASE (exophthalmos & tachycardia), nonmalignant tumors, thyroid inflammation, taking large amounts of thyroid hormone replacement Manifestations: sudden weight loss, tachycardia/palpitation, hypertension, increased appetite, nervousness, anxiety attacks or anxiety, irritability, tremor, diaphoresis, changes in menstrual patterns, increased sensitivity to heat, diarrhea, goiter, difficulty sleeping, exophthalmos Thyrotoxicosis (thyroid storm) is a medical emergency -worsening of hyperthyroidism that may occur with infection or stress -fever, decreased mental alertness, abdominal pain Additional complications: dysrhythmias, heart failure, osteoporosis Treatment: radioactive iodine, anti thyroid agents, beta blockers, surgery, strategies for exophthalmos (e.g. cool compresses, wearing sunglasses, eye lubricants, and elevating the head of the bed), increasing caloric and calcium intake

Answer 152

Decreased urine output

Answer 153

Absent urine production

Answer 154

Parathyroid gland does not produce sufficient amounts of PTH (regulate calcium levels) Causes: congenital defects ( lack of one or more of the four parathyroid glands) and damage (e.g. surgery, radiation, or autoimmune conditions) Manifestations: muscle twitching or spasms (tetany) dysrhythmias, dry/coarse/brittle skin and nails.

Answer 155

Condition of excessive PTH production by the parathyroid glands Manifestations: osteoporosis, renal calculi, polyuria, abdominal pain, constipation, fatigue, weakness, flaccid muscles, dysrhythmias, hypertension, depression, forgetfulness, bone and joint pain, nausea, vomiting, anorexia

Answer 156

Excess cortisol; Excessive amounts of glucocorticoids (Adrenoctorticotropic hormone = ACTH) Causes: Iatrogenic from ingestion of glucocorticoid medications, adrenal tumors that secrete glucocorticoids, pituitary tumors that secrete ACTH and cortisol, and paraneoplastic syndrome (body’s immune system mistakenly attacks normal tissues in response to cancer, rather than just targeting the tumor itself) Manifestations: obesity (especially around the trunk), “moon face”, “buffalo hump” = fatty pad between the shoulders, thin skin, that bruises easily, delayed wound healing, osteoporosis, hirsutism, insulin resistance, hypertension, edema, hypokalemia, mood changes, immunosuppression Treatment: GRADUAL tapering of any glucocorticoids

Answer 157

Deficiency of adrenal cortex hormones (glucocorticoids) Causes: autoimmune conditions Manifestations: hyperpigmentation!!!!! Treatment: lifelong hormone replacement therapy Cortisol low = Addison’s

Answer 158

Negative feedback; It initiates actions to counteract changes in hormone levels, maintaining homeostasis

Answer 159

Peptide hormone; synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum of endocrine cells After synthesis, it moves into the golgi complex (post office of cell) where it is packaged into vesicles

Answer 160

Secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which can lead to an ectopic form of Cushing Syndrome — causes overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands leading to symptoms of Cushing syndrome

Answer 161

Increased levels of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone); adrenal insufficiency Symptoms: muscle weakness, diarrhea, bronze skin tone, bluish-black mucous membranes.

Answer 162

Affects the body’s ability to regulate fluid balance; Excessive urination and DEHYDRATION/THIRST if left untreated.

Answer 163

Elevated cortisol levels increase the mobilization of fatty acids for energy, along with other metabolic effects

Answer 164

Based on hyponatremia (low sodium levels) and other signs of bladder retention

Answer 165

Stores and releases ADH (water balance) and oxytocin (labor, milk) Releases hormones directly into the blood stream

Answer 166

Hormone acts on same cell that produced it, as well as nearby cells

Answer 167

Cell signaling where a cell releases molecules to change the behavior of nearby cells

Answer 168

Hallmark symptom of Graves’ disease, condition related to hyperthyroidism

Answer 169

Responsible for producing estrogen in the ovaries

Answer 170

Levels rise during pregnancy, causes constipation, swelling, nausea, headaches.

Answer 171

Blood in the stool

Answer 172

Located between circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the intestines and plays a key role in controlling gastrointestinal motility

Answer 173

Majority of water is absorbed in the ascending colon, where moist of the fluid is reabsorbed from the chyme as it moves through the large intestine

Answer 174

Strong coordinated contractions that push fecal contents into the rectum, signaling the urge to defecate

Answer 175

Under voluntary control; ureteral sphincter that is made of skeletal muscle

Answer 176

Normal = 90-120

Answer 177

Body produces too many ketones and doesn’t produce enough insulin. It can lead to coma, cerebral edema and death

Answer 178

Type of chemical that your liver produces when it breaks down fat. Body uses ketones for energy typically during fasting or long periods or exercise or when you don’t have as many carbohydrates

Answer 179

Blood test that measures the average blood sugar (glucose) level over the past 2-3 months; key indicator of glycemic control in people with diabetes and prediabete Tells you whether or not pancreas is producing enough insulin

Answer 180

Nerve condition that causes pain, numbness, tingling, weakness in hands, feet, legs, arms Usually shown in patients with diabetes

Answer 181

Hypoglycemic.

Answer 182

Hypoglycemic episode (low blood sugar) during the night, which prompts the body to release stress hormones (like cortisol and adrenaline) to raise blood sugar levels. This rebound effect causes high blood sugar by the morning. • Timing: Occurs after a hypoglycemic episode at night, typically between 2-3 a.m. • Key Point: The underlying cause is a drop in blood sugar, and the body’s response to correct it leads to high blood sugar in the morning.

Answer 183

Cause: Natural increase in hormones like growth hormone, cortisol, and glucagon during the early morning hours (usually between 4-8 a.m.), which can lead to increased glucose production by the liver and higher blood sugar levels in the morning. • Timing: Occurs in the early morning hours, typically between 4-8 a.m. • Key Point: The underlying cause is a physiological increase in hormones that occurs naturally, leading to elevated blood sugar levels upon waking.

Answer 184

• Somogyi Effect: Caused by a low blood sugar episode leading to high blood sugar as the body rebounds. • Dawn Phenomenon: Caused by a natural increase in hormones in the early morning, leading to higher blood sugar.

Answer 185

Responsible for secreting glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels Alpha Cells: • Function: Secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels. • Role: Stimulates the liver to release stored glucose (glycogen) into the bloodstream during periods of low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). • Location: Found in the outer portion of the islets of Langerhans. • Mnemonic: Alpha → Glucagon → Increases blood sugar. 2. Beta Cells: • Function: Secrete insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels. • Role: Facilitates glucose uptake by cells for energy or storage (as glycogen in the liver and muscles). • Location: Found in the center of the islets of Langerhans. • Mnemonic: Beta → Insulin → Decreases blood sugar. 3. Delta Cells: • Function: Secrete somatostatin, which inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon. • Role: Helps regulate the balance between insulin and glucagon secretion, preventing excessive fluctuations in blood sugar. • Location: Found in the inner portion of the islets of Langerhans. • Mnemonic: Delta → Somatostatin → Inhibits insulin and glucagon. Summary of Key Differences: • Alpha cells: Secrete glucagon (raises blood sugar). • Beta cells: Secrete insulin (lowers blood sugar). • Delta cells: Secrete somatostatin (inhibits insulin and glucagon).

Answer 186

Secrete fructose Responsible for sperm motility

Answer 187

Issues with endocrine system and cardiovascular -often linked to underlying cardiovascular conditions

Answer 188

Caused by elevated LH (Leuteinizing hormone) Hormonal imbalances, insulin resistance Elevated androgens, disrupts normal functioning of ovaries.

Answer 189

Promotion of ovarian follicle growth

Answer 190

Promotion of ovarian follicle growth

Answer 191

Blocking effects of estrogen on growth of malignant cells

Answer 192

A condition where one or both of the testes fail to descend into the scrotum during fetal development or infancy -increased a clients risk for development of testicular cancer

Answer 193

Non cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland, commonly occurs as men age As prostate enlarges it can press against urethra, obstructing the flow of urine This can lead to urinary retention, where bladder is unable to fully empty, resulting in discomfort, difficulty urinating and urinary tract infections -causes: dihydrotestosterone (DHT) proliferates the growth of prostatic stromal cells, leading to a reduction in the death of the epithelial cells

Answer 194

When a portion of the intestine or fat pushes through a weak spot in abdominal muscles into the groin area. -nurse’s top priority in this situation is to prevent intestinal ischemia (reduced blood flow)

Answer 195

Minimally invasive surgical procedure in which a camera is inserted into the abdominal cavity, allowing the physician to directly visualize the internal organs, including presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterus (hallmark of endometriosis) -procedure that provides a definitive diagnosis of endometriosis

Answer 196

Manifestations: unilateral pain, swelling, redness in scrotal area Inflammation of the epididymis (tube carrying sperm from testicles) Causes: STIs, chlamydia or gonorrhea, UTIs

Answer 197

Produced by hypothalamus -stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH and FSH

Answer 198

Produced by pituitary gland Females: triggers ovulation (release of the egg) and supports corpus luteum Corpus luteum = secretes the progesterone, crucial for preparing the uterine lining (endometrium) for a possible pregnancy. Males: stimulates testosterone production in testes

Answer 199

Produced by pituitary gland Females Females: stimulated the growth of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen Males: stimulates sperm production in testes -crucial in spermatogenesis

Answer 200

Smooth-muscle fibroid tumors that usually develop in the corpus (body) of the uterus

Answer 201

A biopsy is not recommended because it may result in cancer cells spreading into the scrotum and lymph nodes

Answer 202

Treatment: Surgical removal of affected area

Answer 203

Lower abdomen, near where the thigh meets the torso Inguin- = groin -al = pertaining to or related to If a patient has severer pain in the Inguinal area and nausea, the nurse should inspect the clients genitalia

Answer 204

Male sterilization; Involves cutting and sealing the ductus deferens (vas deferens), which are the tubes that carry sperm from the testes to the urethra.

Answer 205

Primary ovarian insufficiency; occurs when woman’s ovaries stop functioning properly before the age of 40, leading to a cessation of menstruation (amenorrhea) Can result in loss of egg production and decreased levels of estrogen

Answer 206

Produced by anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid gland to produced thyroid hormones T3 and T4 -influences metabolism and energy production Low TSH = hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) High TSH = hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid), thyroid isn’t producing a enough hormones so the pituitary produces more TSH to try to stimulate the thyroid

Answer 207

Produced by anterior pituitary Stimulates the adrenal glands (specifically the adrenal cortex) to produced thyroid hormones cortisol and other glucocorticoids Effect: cortisol helps the body respond to stress, regulates metabolism and supports immune function High ACTH = can lead to Cushing’s disease, where too much cortisol is produced, causing symptoms like weight gain, high blood pressure, and thinning skin Low ACTH = can be seen in Addison’s Disease, where the adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol, leading to fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure

Answer 208

Produced by the hypothalamus Function: TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release TSH (Thyroid stimulation hormone) By stimulating TSH release, TRH helps regulate the thyroid gland’s production of T3 and T4, which are crucial for regulating metabolism, growth, and energy production in the body Low TRH = indicates problem with hypothalamus, possibly leading to hypothyroidism or low TSH levels High TRH = suggests the body is trying to stimulate the thyroid when there is insufficient thyroid hormone (e.g., in cases of hypothyroidism). It can also be a part of the feedback mechanism in response to low thyroid hormone levels TRH is an important part of the Hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Answer 209

Nitric oxide is released to facility smooth muscle relaxation and shunting of blood into the sinusoids

Answer 210

Low urine output Less than 400 mL per day or less than 0.5 mL/kg/hr

Answer 211

Increased urine production, often exceeding the normal range of 800-2000 mL per day in adults It is the opposite of Oliguria

Answer 212

Inflammation of the glomerular capillaries, possibly from a strep infection

Answer 213

Increased glomerular Permeability leads to proteinuria

Answer 214

Evaluates the effectiveness of kidney function and is expected to be between 0.6-1.2 mg/dL Think: 0.6 + 0.6 =1.2

Answer 215

CKD = Long term, progressive condition where kidneys slowly lose function over time Causes: diabetes, high blood pressure, long-term kidney damage Symptoms: fatigue, swelling, trouble urinating Kidneys are still working, but not as well as they should be ESKD = Final, most severe stage of CKD, kidneys are no longer functioning enough to sustain life Causes: occurs when CKD has progressed and kidney function is less than 15% of normal Symptoms: severe fluid retention, electrolyte imbalance, waste buildup in the blood Treatment: dialysis (filtering of waste/excess fluids and toxins from blood) or kidney transplant Kidneys fail completely and require dialysis or transplant

Answer 216

All associated with diabetes mellitus Treatment: exogenous insulin injections

Answer 217

Act locally on cells other than those that produce the hormone It is a type of cell signaling in which a cell produces a signaling molecule that affects nearby target cells within the same tissue or organ

Answer 218

Where hormones travel through the bloodstream to act on distant target cells

Answer 219

When a cell affects itself by responding to signals it has released

Answer 220

Serum creatinine

Answer 221

HbA1C provides an average of the clients blood glucose levels over the past 2-3 months, reflecting long-term management and control of blood sugar levels

Answer 222

Produced by the adrenal gland - plays a key role in regulating sodium and potassium levels due to adrenal gland impairment

Answer 223

Sex hormone alterations

Answer 224

Less than 5.7%

Answer 225

Cycle of insulin-induced posthypoglycemic (symptoms that office after hypoglycemia, low blood sugar, has taken place) - this can happen in individuals with diabetes, when too much insulin is administered or if insulin is not properly adjusted. The body responds to the hypoglycemia by releasing the counter-regulatory hormones such as glucagon, epinephrine, and cortisol, which cause an increase in blood glucose levels THIS PHENOMENON OCCURS OVERNIGHT

Answer 226

Responsible for synthesis, storage and secretion of digestive enzymes

Answer 227

Symptoms: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, nocturia, weight loss, fatigue PH of 7.22 Complication of diabetes usually occurring in individuals with type 1 diabetes, when there is insufficient insulin, leading to hyperglycemia without significant ketosis or acidosis

Answer 228

Liver plays a central role in glucose metabolism When there is excess glucose in the bloodstream, the liver converts it into glycogen through a process called GLYCOGENESIS and stores it for later use

Answer 229

Kidneys and eyes

Exam 2 Flashcards

(272 cards)