Exam 2 Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
How much of total body weight is blood?
A
8%
2
Q
How much of plasma is water?
A
90%
3
Q
Name the four components of the cardiovascular system
A
blood, the heart, vessels, and lymphatics
4
Q
Connective tissue comprised of plasma and formed elements
A
blood
5
Q
What are the 5 main functions of blood?
A
→ transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones
→ controls body temp with vasoconstriction/dilation
→ maintains pH balance
→ makes sure all cells get enough fluid
→ removes waste and bad pathogens
6
Q
Why is pH important?
A
proper pH level are crucial to optimal protein function, it I regulated by bicarbonate proteins. ideal range is 7.35-7.45
7
Q
What are the physical characteristics of blood?
A
→ more viscous than blood
→ slightly alkaline (basic)
→ about 1 degree warmer than your oral temperature would read
→ 55% plasma, 45% formed elements
8
Q
Components of plasma?
A
90% water, other 10% mostly:
→ albumins- maintain blood osmotic pressure
→ globulins- antibodies for immunity
→ fibrogens- aid in blood clotting
9
Q
What makes up the formed elements of blood?
A
99% red blood cells, other 1% is the buffy coat
10
Q
What makes up the buffy coat?
A
white blood cells (neutrophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils) and platelets
11
Q
What is hemopoiesis?
A
The formation of red and white blood cells. The process occurs mostly in red bone marrow (exception: t-lymphocytes mature in the thymus). Hormones like erythropoietins thrombopoietin, and cytokines trigger production
12
Q
Myeloid stem cells differentiate into…?
A
Red blood cells, platelets, and granulocytes (basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils)
13
Q
Lymphoid stem cells turn into…?
A
Lymphoblasts that turn into either b-lymphocytes or t-lymphocytes
14
Q
What is leukemia?
A
Cancer of the white blood cells. Causes an abnormal spike in immature wbc production. This results in a low count of fighting wbc, because the cancerous ones never mature
15
Q
Red blood cells
A
Main job is to transport hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein that contains iron. Iron makes it possible to transport oxygen. One red blood cell can transport 4 oxygen molecules
16
Q
Sickle cell anemia
A
Caused by irregularly shaped red blood cells. This deformity disrupts the flow of blood
17
Q
What happens to red blood cell?
A
Iron is recycled to be used for blood cell synthesis. Leftover heme is processed by the liver and is secreted into urine and feces (gives them their color)
18
Q
Hematocrit
A
Refers to the RBC count. Low count= anemia
19
Q
What is a free moving thrombosis called?
A
Embolus
20
Q
What is a erythrocyte?
A
Red blood cells
21
Q
What are the parts of hemoglobin?
A
A protein called globin bound to an iron-containing pigment called heme
22
Q
True or false: Heme is discarded from the body once the rbc dies
A
False: the iron portion returns to red bone marrow to synthesize new hemoglobin, the other portion is converted to bilirubin and secreted into bile that goes through the intestines
23
Q
What is an antigen?
A
Any substance that stimulates your body to produce antibodies. This may be bacteria, a virus, or a naturally occurring substance.
24
Q
What is an antibody?
A
A protein made by the body’s immune system that detects the presence of an antigen
25
Suppose a person with A blood receives a transfusion from someone with B blood. Their body rejects the B blood. Why?
A person with A blood also has anti-b antibodies. When the body detected the b antigens on the new blood, the natural anti-b bodies attacked it.
26
When a person rejects blood from a transfusion, this is called _______?
An acute hemolytic reaction
27
What are some symptoms of acute hemolytic reactions?
Hypotension, bleeding, fever, increased heart rate, chest pain, and hemoglobinuria and hyper-bilirubonemia
28
What is the Rh blood group?
The presence of an Rh group is represented by a (+) next to the blood type. Someone without the Rh group DOES NOT possess Rh antibodies unless exposed to the antigen (they are not naturally occurring)
29
What are the characteristics of an Eosinophil?
- B shaped nuclei
- is a phagocyte
- produced in high levels in asthmatics and in the event of a parasitic infection
- GRANULOCYTE
30
What are the characteristics of a Neutrophil?
- most abundant WBC
- is a phagocyte
- lack of them indicates a compromised immune system
- GRANULOCYTE
31
What are the characteristics of a basophil?
-produced in high levels during an allergic reaction
-produces granules containing things like heparin and
histamine to produce inflammation
-GRANULOCYTE
32
What are the characteristics of a monocyte?
- "1st responders"
- can develop into macrophages
- helps immune system by destroying certain antigens
- AGRANULOCYTE
33
What are the characteristics of a lymphocyte?
- travels in lymph
- they are not phagocytes
- occur as b- and t-lymphocytes
- produce antibodies
34
Where do t-lymphocytes develop and what do they do?
They develop in the thymus and fight fungi, viruses, cancer cells, and some bacterias
35
Where are b-lymphocytes produced and what do they do?
B-lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow and produce antibodies effective on bacteria
36
How do WBC travel to infected sites in the body?
They travel to the site via blood cells, then they roll and stick to the vessel wall, then squeeze in between endothelial cells. Afterwards, they re-enter the blood stream(except for lymphocytes)
37
What is the lifespan of a WBC (also called leukocytes)
Most live only a few days; in the event of an infection, only a few hours. Some b and t cells can live months and years
38
How is WBC count measured?
By differential count:
| A machine counts how many of each WBC type in the first 100 encountered
39
What are platelets/thrombocytes?
Flakes of megakaryocytes that flow in the blood stream. They are essential for blood clotting, too few and too many are both bad.
40
How is a blod clot formed?
Blood vessel breaks → vasoconstriction → platelets attach to frayed ends on blood vessels → glycoproteins allow platelets to bind to each other, forming the clot
41
What is atherosclerosis?
Accumulation of fatty substances on arterial walls. Makes clots form a lot easier
42
What is thrombosis?
Clotting in an unbroken vessel
43
What threat does an embolus pose?
This clot can move through the vessels and block the blood flow to an organ should it get caught in a small vessel. Can lead to stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, and pulmonary embolism.
44
What comprises the lymphatic system?
- lymph
- lymph vessels
- lymphatic tissues (think reticular connective tissue!)
- red bone marrow, thymus, tonsils, spleen
45
Functions of the lymphatic system?
-drains interstitial fluid and returns proteins to the blood
stream
-transports dietary lipids
-carries out immune responses
46
What can the innate immune response do?
Provides rapid responses to all types of diseases
47
What does the adaptive immune response do?
Develops in response to unfamiliar pathogens. Slowly, it remembers these pathogens to know how to fight it in the future
48
Lymphatic capillaries
-begin closed-ended in tissue spaces between cells
-unique one-way flow permits interstitial to flow in but
not out
49
Lacteals
Absorb dietary lipids in the small intestines
50
What are lymphatic trunks?
A cluster of lymphatic vessels that dump into one of two lymphatic ducts
51
What are lymphatic ducts?
-Thoracic duct: Main duct, receives lymph from the lower
limbs, abdomen, left neck and head, left arm, and left
chest
-Right lymphatic duct: receives lymph from the right head, neck, arm, and chest
52
Where do lymphatic ducts drain?
Subclavian vein
53
What is lymph?
Forms from excess interstitial fluid, filtered from blood capillaries with only small proteins in it.
54
True or false: lymph flows through the body in the same way that venous blood does
True, it relies on skeletal and respiratory pumps
55
Describe the flow of lymph
blood capillaries → lymph capillaries, vessels, nodes, trunks, and ducts → venous blood near junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins
56
What are the primary lymphatic organs?
red bone marrow and thymus
57
What does red bone marrow do for the lymphatic system?
Stem cells in it produce B and T lymphocytes, B cells mature here as well
58
What does the thymus do for the lymphatic system?
T cells mature here, macrophages eat dead cells and debris by phagocytosis
59
What are the secondary lymphatic organs?
Lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic follicles
60
What do lymph nodes do for the lymphatic system?
They sit along lymphatic vessels and function as a filter for foreign substances. Unfiltered lymph enters them through EFFerent vessels and filtered lymph exits through AFFerent vessels
61
What does the spleen do for the lymphatic system?
Has white pulp (where b and t cells and macrophages destroy pathogens) and red pulp (where worn out/defective rbc and platelets gather in the fetal stage)
62
What do lymphatic follicles do for the lymphatic system?
Secretes mucosa associated with lymphatic tissue throughout the tracts of several organs
63
What makes up the body's first line of defense against microbes?
Skin, mucous membranes, chemicals and fluids (tears, saliva, urine, vaginal secretion, sebum, perspiration), defecation and vomiting, enzymes called lysozymes, and acidity
64
What makes up the body's second line of defense against pathogens?
Natural killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation, fever (caused by the hypothalamus, prevents microbal growth), and antimicrobial proteins
65
What does the respiratory system do?
- provides for gas exchange
- regulates blood pH
- filters inspired air
- produces vocal sounds
- excretes small amounts of water and heat
- contains receptors for sense of smell
66
The following structures are parts of the ________ respiratory system: nose, pharynx, and associated structures
Upper
67
The following structures are part of the__________
| respiratory system: larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Lower
68
This zone (nose to terminal bronchioles) warms, moistens, and filters air
Conducting Zone
69
This zone (respiratory bronchioles to alveoli) exchanges gas between air and blood
Respiratory Zone
70
What does the nasal cavity do?
Warms, moistens, and filters incoming air. Contains olfactory epithelium for smelling
71
Describe respiratory epithelium
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium transport mucus and goblet cells produce it
72
Describe the anatomy of the nasal cavity
Vestibule is the cartilaginous part that makes up the nose. The floor is defined by the hard and soft palate. Roof is defined by the ethmoid and sphenoid bones.
73
What do the superior, middle, and inferior conchae do for your nasal cavity?
They produce fluid (a quart a day, exactly) containing lysozymes and definsin that protects against pathogens.
74
This structure, posterior to the nasal cavity and superior to the soft palate, serves as an air passage way and contains your pharyngeal tonsils and the opening to your Eustachian tube (auditory).
Nasopharynx
75
This structure, between the soft palate and the epiglottis, serves as an air/food passageway and contains the palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils, and the base of the tongue
Oropharynx
76
Which tonsil is visible when you open your mouth?
Palatine tonsils
77
This structure extends from the epiglottis to the larynx. It serves as an air and food passageway.
Laryngopharynx
78
What is tonsillitis? How long does it last?
Infection of the tonsils (aka the common cold). Bacterial causes can be treated with antibiotics. Lasts about 3 weeks
79
This structure covers the airway when swallowing, directing food and liquids to the esophagus
Epiglottis
80
This structures contains two membrane folds- one that is used to hold breath and one that vibrates to produce vocal sounds
Glottis
81
What is an intubation? Why would a patient need one?
An intubation is the placement of a flexible plastic pipe into the trachea. Patients with obstructed airways or under anesthesia need them to facilitate breathing
82
The trachea is anterior to the __________
Esophagus
83
What does c-shaped cartilage do in the trachea?
Provides support to prevent it from collapsing and obstructing the airway
84
What is the trachealis?
A smooth elastic muscle that connects to the c-shaped cartilage posteriorly
85
What is the carina?
Sits at the inferior end of the trachea. Divides the trachea into the left and right primary bronchus. *triggers cough reflex*
86
The trachealis is initiated by the ___________ nervous system
parasympathetic
87
What kind of epithelium lines the trachea?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
88
True or false: the left primary bronchus sits at a nearly horizontal angle
Why or why not?
True. The L primary bronchus must bypass the heart and passes through the aortic arch
89
The right lung has __ lobes and the left lung has __ lobes and a ______ _______.
3, 2, cardiac notch
90
Name all parts of the bronchial tree, starting with carina
Carina→ primary bronchus → secondary bronchii → tertiary bronchii → interlobular bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveolar sacs → alveoli
91
The _______ pleura covers the lungs, the _______ pleura covers the thoracic cavity, and in between is filled with ______ _____.
Visceral, parietal, serous fluid.
92
How do the pleura aid in respiration? Why is it important?
The two pleura act as magnets, they attract and hold to each other, reducing friction and allowing the lungs to expand as much as possible.
93
Gas exchange occurs in the ________
Alveoli
94
A lobule contains the alveolar ducts. Each lobule contains 3 vessels:
A lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, and a venule.
95
Each alveolar sac is surrounded by what kind of vessel?
Pulmonary capillary
96
What kind of epithelium are found in the alveoli?
Type I- simple squamous epithelium that defines the membrane
Type II- cuboidal epithelium that secretes oils and provides structural support
Alveolar macrophages- destroys bad particles by phagocytosis
97
How does emphysema hinder the respiratory system?
It gradually breaks down the alveoli, limiting gas exchange, hindering ability to exhale carbon dioxide
98
Pulmonary ventilation
How air gets in and out of the lungs
99
External respiration
How oxygen diffuses from the lung to the bloodstream and how CO2 diffuses from the bloodstream to the lung
100
Transport of gases
How oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried throughout the body
101
Internal respiration
How oxygen diffuses to body tissues and how carbon dioxide diffuses into the bloodstream
102
Importance of Henry's Law?
Tells how due to the pressure and solubility of each gas, oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse through tissues and nitrogen can't.
103
Importance of Fick's Law?
Tells how pressure differences (altitude), surface area (respiratory disease), distance, molecular weight, and solubility affects diffusion.
104
The WBC _______ promotes inflammation and inhibits blood clotting
Basophils
105
What is a coagulant?
Something that promotes blood clotting, like heparin
106
Out of the 760mmHg of pressure in the air, ____ is oxygen and _____ is carbon dioxide
20.9% (159mmHg), 0.04% (0.3mmHg)
107
What is the clinical term for oxygen deprivation?
Hypoxia
108
How does air enter the lungs during inspiration?
Lung pressure during inhalation is lower than atmospheric pressure, so air from outside wants to flow into the lungs
109
Name the muscles used during natural inspiration
Diaphragm, external intercostals, sternocleidomastoid
110
Name the muscles used during forced inhalation
In addition to the muscles used naturally, pectoralis major and minor.
111
Name the muscles used during forced exhalation
Internal and external obliques, internal intercostals, rectal and transverse abdominus
112
What would you find in each intercostal space?
Vein, artery, nerve
113
What is an emphysematous bleb?
An air bubble in lung tissue
114
If someone is laying down, where would you place a chest tube? Standing up?
At rib 5, at rib 8
115
During inspiration, the external intercostals move the ribs ___ and ____.
Up and out
116
During expiration, the internal intercostals move the ribs ____ and ____
Down and in
117
Almost NO energy in expended for ______ expiration
Natural
118
What three factors affect pulmonary ventilation?
- Surface area of alveolar fluid (provides elastic recoil during expiration)
- Compliance of lung tissue (amount of energy required to stretch the lung)
- Airway resistance (Walls offer resistance, obstructions)
119
What is the importance of surfactant?
It reduces surface tension in alveolar fluid.
120
What is respiratory distress syndrome?
A deficiency in infants that can cause too many alveoli to collapse and therefore requiring much more inhalation.
121
High compliance means lungs ______ _____.
| Low compliance means lungs ______ ______.
Expand easily, resist expansion
122
How does asthma hinder lung function?
Trachealis contracts too much and narrows the airway
123
Which of the below tissues forms the exchange surfaces of the alveolus?
Simple squamous epithelium
124
The alveoli do not collapse due to secretion of...?
Surfactant (cuboidal cells)
125
During exhalation the pressure in the lungs is ______ than the pressure of the atmosphere.
Greater
126
Air molecules enter into the ___ cavity, then into a series of groove-like passageways - the superior, middle, and inferior ___.
Nasal, nasal meatus
127
What are the superior and inferior borders of the pharynx?
Nasal cavity and esophagus
128
Pitch is controlled by...?
Tension of the vocal chords.
129
What are the 3 ways the body can maintain pH levels?
- buffer system (blood)
- exhalation of CO2 (lungs)
- excretion of H+ (kidneys)
130
What kinds of food increase acidity? Alkalinity?
Alchohol, carbs, simple sugars.
| Veggies, spices, fruits
