Exam 2 Flashcards
(342 cards)
1
Q
Maintaining several systems at a constant level at once
A
Allostasis
2
Q
Behavior motivated to meet the survival needs of the animal
A
Regulatory behavior
3
Q
Process that maintains critical body functions within a narrow, fixed range
A
Homeostatic mechanism
4
Q
What are the four components of a regulatory system
A
System variable
Set point
Correctional mechanism
Detector
5
Q
What is being monitored in a negative feedback system
A
System variable
6
Q
Optimal value or optimal range that a system variable needs to be within
A
Set point
7
Q
Mechanism that monitors the system variable for fluctuations and signals the correctional mechanism when the system variable moves away from the setpoint
A
Detector
8
Q
The response of the correctional mechanism signals the correctional mechanism to turn off
A
Negative feedback system
9
Q
Mechanism that engages when the system variable is not met in order to return the system variable to the required level
A
Correctional mechanism
10
Q
What is being monitored in a satiety system
A
How long the correctional mechanism has been engaged or the amount of resources the correctional mechanism has made available
11
Q
Where do we keep the majority of water in our body
A
In our cells
12
Q
Where is the vast majority of extracellular fluid found
A
Bathing cells
13
Q
Fluid that is in the body bathing cells
A
Interstitial fluid
14
Q
Where is 7% of our bodily water located
A
In our bloodstream
15
Q
Where is 1% of our bodily water located
A
In our Cerebrospinal fluid
16
Q
A motivational state that results from losing fluid from one or more of our fluid compartments
A
Thirst
17
Q
The most amount of water loss from the body is through
A
Urination
18
Q
Besides urination how else is water lost from the body
A
Perspiration, respiration, evaporation
19
Q
How much water is lost from the body every day
A
2 1/2 L or 8 to 9 cups
20
Q
Thirst that results from an increased concentration of dissolved chemicals or solutes in bodily fluid’s
A
Osmotic thirst
21
Q
Thirst that is produced by a loss of overall fluid volume from the body
A
Hypovolemic thirst
22
Q
Cells in your brain that monitor the movement of water
A
Osmo receptors
23
Q
How do you osmo receptors work
A
As fluid levels drop osmoreceptor shrink like any other cell and thus increase their firing rate the smaller they are
24
Q
Where are osmoreceptors located
A
OVLT
organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis
near the third ventricle
25
cells that stimulate posterior pituitary cells to release anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).
Also communicate with LH (?) to promote drinking behavior
OVLT cells
26
When it comes to thirst what does the lateral hypothalamus do
It communicates with the zona incerta which initiates drinking
27
Makes you crave salty water
Hypovolemic thirst
28
Why does hypovolemic thirst make you crave salty water
Because in hypovolemic thirst in addition to losing water is also lost the solutes in the water
29
What type of receptors detect hypovolemic thirst
Baroreceptors
30
Receptors that monitor pressure specifically blood pressure which is affected by blood volume
baroreceptors
31
How do baroreceptors monitor pressure
Through stretch receptors the more stretch the higher the pressure
32
What happens when Baroreceptors in the kidneys detect decreased blood flow
It signals the kidneys to secrete renin
33
Hormone that converts angiotensonigen into angiotensin II
Renin
34
Makes Blood vessels constrict and signals the
| Adrenal glands to release aldosterone.
angiotensin II
35
Hormone that sends a message to the kidneys to retain sodium
aldosterone
36
What happens when baroreceptors in the heart detect low pressure
They send information to the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract via glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
37
What is the main parts of initiation of drinking process
Stimulation of the median preoptic nucleus.
The median preoptic nucleus communicates with the lateral hypothalamus
the hypothalamus then stimulates zona incerta.
The zona incerta initiates the motor aspects of drinking.
38
What are the 3 different ways the median pre-optic nucleus can be stimulated to initiate drinking
1) Angiotensin II stimulates the sub fornical organ
2) Through the atrial baroreceptors and the nucleus of the solitary tract to the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
3) Osmoreceptors
39
what part of the brain makes you want to drink water
median pre-optic nucleus zona inserta
40
What are the basic functions like eating, drinking, sleeping and sex driven by
hormones
41
A condition cause by over drinking and characterized by dangerously low sodium levels.
hyponatremia
42
What is one of the dangers of hyponatremia
heart failure
43
Lesions of this area produces overdrinking (polydipsia).
septal area
44
What may over drinking during endurance events result in
both low sodium and low fluid levels.
45
Maintaining one system at a constant level or rate
Homeostatsis
46
What is the difference between negative feedback and a satiety system
The difference is that what is being monitored in a negative feedback system is the actual level of the system variable whereas in a satiety system the actual correctional mechanism is monitored to see that it has been on long enough to get the system variable up to the set point eventually
47
Where do we keep water in our bodies
Most of it is in our cells. The next biggest pocket of water is the interstitial fluid, After that is the blood and then the cerebrospinal fluid
48
Why is the level of tonicity important
The tonicity between fluid compartments determines where water is going to move in your body
49
WHat happens when you eat a bag of potato chips
First the blood becomes hypertonic which pulls water from the interstitial fluid and then water is pulled from your cells
50
A motivational state that signals that the fluid balance is off and causes you to seek water
Thirst
51
How is osmotic thirst detected?
By Osmoreceptors on the blood side of the blood brain barrier anterior to the third ventricle
52
On what part of the brain do both the osmotic signals and hypovolemic signals converge
In the median preoptic nucleus to the zona incerta which initiates thirst
53
What fluid compartment to barorecptors monitor
the blood
54
where are baroreceptors located
in our heart, carotid artery and kidneys
55
It a how our bodies extract energy from various sources
Metabolism
56
What are the two processes of metabolism
The fasting phase and the absorptive phase
57
The process in which energy is extracted when we don't have food in our gut
Fasting phase
58
The metabolic process that happens when there is food in our gut
absorptive phase
59
WHat happens during the fasting phase
We pull from the short term reservoir, the long-term reservoir
60
Where is the short term reservoir
In the muscles and liver
61
What is the short term reservoir stocked with
Glycogen
62
Insoluble form of glucose
Glycogen
63
How is glycogen converted back into glucose
By glucagon
64
What does the pancreas secrete
insulin and glucagon
65
When does the pancreas secrete glucagon
When glucose levels in the blood are low
66
When does the pancreas secrete insulin
When glucose levels in the blood are high
67
What does the short term reservoir feed
the brain
68
What does the long term reservoir feed
Body cells
69
Where is the long term reservoir stored
In adipose tissue
70
What does the long term reservoir contain
Triglycerides
71
A soluble carbohydrate combination of fatty acids and glycerol
Triglyceride
72
What converts glycerol to glucose
The liver
73
What is a triglyceride made up of
A three fatty acid chain with a glycerol head
74
What happens to the triglycerides in the fasting phase
They get pulled apart into fatty acid chains and the molecule of glycerol. The glycerol is then converted into glucose
75
Why does the brain get all the glucose during the fasting phase
Body cells can only take in glucose through glucose transporters. Glucose transporters in body cells only open when insulin is bound to them. During the fasting phase there is an absence of insulin in the blood. The glucose transporters in the brain, however, do not require insulin to open and therefor can use the glucose in the absence of insulin
76
WHere does digestion start
in the mouth
77
WHat are the three macronutrients
Protein, carbohydrates and fats
78
What happens when the glucose from your breakfast cereal hits your blood stream
The glucose level triggers the pancreas to start releasing insulin
79
What does insulin do
It triggers the glucose transporters to open on body cells so that the cells can take up the insulin from the blood. It also converts some free floating glucose into glycogen.
80
What marks the absorptive phase of digestion
The levels of insulin is higher than your level of glucagon
81
Disease in which The cells that produce the insulin in the pancreas are destroyed
Type One diabetes
82
Disease in which The cells that produce insulin are there but they stop producing insulin because the cells are ignoring the insulin that is produced and over time they just shut down.
type two diabetes
83
What leads to insulin resistance
Obesity
84
WHat are the internal cues to eat
Stomach is growling
Glucose levels are low
The quantity of stored fats are low
Long term storage is low
85
What are External cues to eat
Sight and smell of food
time of day
Presence of other people (social settings)
Other habits
86
What are the symptoms of diabetes
extreme thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and weight loss
87
Why does diabetes cause extreme thirst
Because without insulin you can not clear the glucose from your blood to maintain the tonicity which makes you thirsty.
88
Why does diabetes cause frequent urination
Because the thirst that is caused by the increased tonicity causes you to drink more when you really don't need to
89
Why does diabetes cause fatigue
Without insulin you can not get glucose to your body cells to make ATP
90
Why does diabetes cause weight loss
Because the body will constantly draw on triglycerides to feed itself
91
What leads to insulin resistance
Obesity
92
WHat are the internal cues to eat
Stomach is growling
Glucose levels are low
The quantity of stored fats are low
Long term storage is low
93
What are External cues to eat
Sight and smell of food
time of day
Presence of other people (social settings)
Other habits
94
What do hunger detectors in the brain monitor
The availability of glucose
95
Why do the hunger receptors in the brain only detect levels of glucose
Because the brain can not metabolize fatty acids
96
Where are the brain hunger receptors located
on the brain side of the blood brain barrier in the nucleus of the solitary tract
97
What does the nucleus of the solitary tract communicate with
the hypothalamus
98
What do liver hunger detectors monitor
availability of glucose and fats
99
What do the liver hunger detectors communicate nutrient availability with
nucleus of the solitary tract via the vegas nerve
100
What do liver hunger detectors influance
release of insulin
101
What are the macronutrients
Carbs
proteins
fats
102
What does the pancreas secrete in the absorptive phase
insulin
103
What does the pancreas secrete during the fasting phase
glucagon
104
Where are most macronutrients in one meal ending up
long term storage
105
What is insulin's job
it helps maintain blood tonicity and maintain cardiac function
106
How are energy sources detected
Through the hunger receptors in the brain and liver
107
Where do hunger signals converge
the nucleus of the solitary tract
108
produces chemical signals that activate the vagus nerve and drive cravings for specific foods
Also increase receptor populations in the gut making food more or less rewarding
Gut bacteria
109
What are the brain structures involved in hunger and eating
```
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Arcuate nucleus
paraventricular nucleus
Nucleus of the solitary tract
```
110
What happens to animals when the LH is lesioned
they do not initiate eating and starve if not force-fed initially
111
What happens when the LH is electrically stimulated
produces eating behavior
112
induces ravenous eating
| increases insulin release
NPY
113
a very potent eating stimulant
| Antagonist at MC4 receptors in LH
AGRP
114
What is going on when we feel hungry
The nucleus of the solitary tract detects nutrient levels and in turn stimulates the Arcuate nucleus
The Arcuate nucleus then releases NPY and signals the pancreas to increase insulin release. The stomach releases ghrelin which initiates hunger. The AN also releases AGRP that increases eating behavior.
115
increases eating behavior and decreases metabolic rate, suppresses the release of thyroid stimulating hormone, and adreno corticotropic hormone.
MCH and Orexin
116
TSH tells the thyroid to spend energy instead of storing it.
Thyroid Stimulating hormone
117
Tells the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol which increases metabolic rate and increases release of energy stores
adreno-corticotropic hormone
118
What is the point of MCH and Orexin suppressing Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and adreno-corticotropic hormone
Because when they are being suppressed is when we are trying to increase energy stores and decrease energy spending
119
When fat cells are full and happy what do they secrete
Leptin
120
What cells do leptin inhibit
cells of the arcuate nucleus
121
What happens when leptin levels drop
The arcuate nucleus is no longer inhibited and releases NPY and AgRP
NPY and Agrp communicate with LH and the paraventricular nucleus
The parasympathetic division is activated and feeding begins
pituitary hormones TSH and ACTH are suppresed
122
What hormone stimulates the arcuate nucleus
grehlin
123
If we could produce a drug that would mimic the effects of leptin would it increase or decrease eating
decrease
124
Satiety signal that comes from the immediate consequence of eating a given meal
Short term
125
Satiety signal that comes from adipose tissue and influences general levels of eating
long term
126
What are the types of receptors that provide the signal to stop eating
There are stretch, effort and nutrient receptors
127
What does eating foods that are high in fats stimulate
the release of cholecystokinin (CCK)
128
Where is CCK released from
The duodenum
129
Promotes release of insulin
contracts gallbladder, releasing bile (to break down fat)
May be a brain neurotransmitter signaling satiety
CCK
130
What do CCK antagonists do
initiate eating
131
What are the "let's have lunch" neurons
NPY and AgRp
132
What are the "no thanks I'm full" neurons
αMSH and CART
133
What does CART stand for
Cocaine and Amphetamine related transcription
134
inhibits the "let's have lunch neurons" NPY/Agrp
PYY
135
agonist at MC4 receptors
αMSH
136
produces increased insulin release and increased metabolism
paraventricular Nucleus
137
What inhibits the PVN
Leptin, CART and αMSH
138
What provides the most accurate measure of body fat
submersion test
139
What body fat percent is considered obese for men and women
25% for men
| 32% for women
140
What BMI is considered obese
30 - 40
141
What BMI is morbidly obese
40 and above
142
What BMI is overweight
25-29
143
What neurotransmitters are made by the arcuate nucleus
NPY and AgRP
144
What neurotransmitters are made by the LH
orexin and MCH
145
What are MC4 receptors
receptors on the lateral hypothalamus
146
What happens when MC4 receptors are stimulated
they decrease the activity of the next neuron
147
Where does grehlin come from
the stomach
148
What happens to people who are brought up cleaning their plate
They are less sensitive to internal cues
149
What is sucrose made of
half glucose and half fructose
150
What is high fructose corn syrup made of
55% fructose and 45% glucose
151
What is the problem with fructose
It is more likely to go to the liver and converted into triglycerides
Not as much insulin is released as when you have glucose
It leads to decrease in insulin production and insulin resistance
increases the formation of toxic advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
152
How does insulin effect carbohydrates
promotes entrance of glucose into cells
| converts glucose to glycogen for short term storage
153
How does insulin effect protein
increases protein storage in muscles
154
How does insulin effect fat
activates lipoprotein lipase in adipose tissue
suppresses the activity of hormone-sensitive lipase
creates new fat cells
increases conversion of glucose into fatty acids in the liver
increases formation of triglycerides in the liver
155
an enzyme located in cells that increases the entry of fatty acids
lipoprotein lipase
156
Enzyme located inside fat cells that breaks down triglycerides.
hormone-sensitive lipase
157
Where is the obesity gene
chromosome 4
158
Where is the diabetes gene
chromosome 6
159
What happened to the Ob mouse connected to a normal mouse
The ob mouse shrinks
160
What happens if you connect the db mouse to the normal mouse
the normal mouse loses weight and nothing happens to the db mouse
161
What happens when you connect the ob mouse to the db mouse
Nothing happens to the db mouse but the ob mouse loses weight
162
What is the conclusion of the Ob/Db experiment
Ob mouse does not produce leptin signal but is responsive to leptin. The db mouse produces leptin, but is unresponsive to it
163
The energy required to fuel the brain and body and maintain temperature
Basal metabolic rate
164
What percent of americans are obese
30%
165
How does insulin promote obesity
Promotes the entry of glucose into fat cells where it is transformed into triglycerides
Helps to produce more fat cells
Activates LPL
Supresses HSL
166
What happens when you can't process your triglycerides and they stay locked in your fat cells
You are hungry all the time
167
What is the heritability estimate for weight
50 - 90 %
168
What is wrong with the Ob/ob mouse
He doesn't make leptin
169
What is wrong with the Db/db mouse
makes leptin but is not sensitive to it
170
What are the 6 symptoms of anorexia
```
Preoccupation with food
Amenorrhea
Lanugo
Intense fear of becoming obese
Distorted body image
Increased exercise
```
171
What are the treatments for Anorexia
5-HT antagonists
| behavioral therapy
172
What are the 6 symptoms of bulimia
```
Binging
Vomiting
Excessive use of laxatives or diuretics
Weight is usually normal
Frequent sore throat
Dental problems
```
173
Male gamete
sperm
174
Female gamete
ovum
175
Male Chromosome make up
XY
176
Female Chromosome make up
XX
177
How does the undifferentiated primordial gonads differentiate
at 6th week the sex determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) gene is expressed in males
178
What are fetal gonads like prior to 6 weeks
undifferentiated primordial gonads
179
How is the SRY gene expressed
It encodes testis determining factor
180
What does testis-determining factor do
turns primordial gonads into testes
181
What happens in the absence of testis-determining factor
primordial gonads turn into ovaries
182
What system is made up of funbriae, fallopian tubes, uterus, inner 2/3 of vagina
Mullerian system
183
What system is made up of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles
Wolffian system
184
What is the hormonal control difference between the Mullerian and Wolffian systems
The Wolffian system must be stimulated while the Mullerian system with develop naturally unless suppressed
185
What are the two hormones secreted by an embryo with testes
Anti-Mullerian hormone
| Testosterone
186
Hormone that suppresses the development of the Mullerian system and has a defeminizing effect
Anti-Mullerian hormone
187
Hormone that stimulates the development of the Wolffian system and has a masculinizing effect
Testosterone
188
What hormones are secreted if an embryo has ovaries
no hormones are secreted
189
What happens to the Mullerian and Wolffian systems in female embryos
The mullerian system will develop normally and the Wolffian system with wither away
190
What happens when there is anti-mullerian hormone and testosterone
you get activation of the Wolffian system. Testes
191
What happens if there is no anti-mullerian hormone. but testosterone is present
You get both the stimulation of the wolffian system and normal development of the mullerian system. Both internal sex organs
192
What happens if there is anti-mullerian hormone but no testosterone
No internal sex organs
193
What happens if there is no anti-mullerian hormone or testosterone
Normal development of the mullerian system. Ovaries
194
What are the male external sex organs
penis and scrotum
195
Process that requires stimulation by 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone from the testes.
Masculinization of external genitalia or development of external male sex organs
196
labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, outer vagina
Female external sex organs
197
How do female external sex organs develop
Do not require hormonal stimulation to develop
198
What is the genotype in turner's syndrome
XO
199
Syndrome in which the individual has no ovaries, and abnormal uterine development
Turner's syndrome
200
What type of external sex organs do people with Turner's syndrome have
Normal female external appearance
201
What is the genotype for Klinefelter's Syndrome
XXY genotype
202
Male external appearance, except for female pubic hair pattern, smaller testicular size, wide hips and breast development. May require hormones at puberty
Klinefelter's Syndrome
203
What is the genotype in Jacob's syndrome
XYY
204
What is the genotype in Androgen-insensitivity Syndrome
XY
205
A syndrome that results from a defective gene that produces abnormal androgen receptors in an XY fetus
Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)
206
What are the gonads in Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)
testes
207
What happens with the Wolffian system and the Anti-Mullerian hormone in AIS
The tissues are blind to androgens so the Wolffian systen does not develop
Anti-Mullerian hormone is present so development of female internal sex organs is prevented
208
What is the outward appearance of a person with AIS
Female
209
What are the internal sexual organs in AIS
none
210
Heritable condition in which the fetus’s adrenal glands release excess androgens
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
211
What happens to males with CAH
They may develop early
212
What happens to females with CAH
The may have ambiguous external genitalia
213
Makes you crave clear water
Osmotic thirst
214
What organ is the major source of testosterone in females
The adrenal glands
215
Prenatal hormonal effects that organize tissue
Organizational effects
216
Hormonal effects that are not permanent and are mostly visible due to the concentration of hormones in the body. They come on around puberty
Activational effects
217
What does the hypothalamus release that activates puberty
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
218
Hormone that signals to the anterior pituitary to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
219
Hormone that acts on the tissues of the ovaries to begin the menstrual cycle and egg development
FSH and LH
220
Hormone that is released at puberty and leads to increased sperm production
FSH
221
Promotes increased release of testosterone by the testes
FSH and LH
222
Promotes the development of male secondary sex characteristics
Testosterone
223
What are the 5 secondary sex characteristic that develop at puberty
```
Increased muscular development
Maturity of external genitalia
Facial Hair
Enlargement of the larynx (voice deepening)
Regulation of sperm production
```
224
Hormones that stimulate estradiol production by the ovaries
FSH and LH
225
What are the 5 secondary sex characteristics in females that develop at puberty
```
Breast development
maturity of external genitalia
maturity of the uterus
changes in the distribution of fat
slow skeletal growth
```
226
Converts testosterone to 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone
5-alpha-reductase
227
Masculinizes the external genitalia in the male fetus
5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone
228
Syndrome in which the external genitalia are ambiguous and child is usually raised as a female, however the internal organs are male and at puberty the external organs change to male from female
5-alpha-reductase deficiency
229
What hormones are synthesized from cholesterol
sex hormones
230
inhibits GnRH release
Melatonin
231
inhibits melatonin
light
232
The 9 steps of the menstrual cycle
1) Anterior pituitary increases release of FSH
2) One follicle develops faster and releases estradiol
3) LH release is sharply increased
4) Ovulation occurs at about day 14
5) Ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum
6) Corpus luteum releases estradiol and progesterone
7) the uterine wall thickens in preparation for the implantation of an embryo
8) If fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum stops producing estradiol and progesterone
9) The uterus sheds its lining and the cycle repeats
233
a period of hours or days during which a female is receptive to males
estrus
234
Has the most influence on female sexual interest
testosterone
235
What are the three ways to measure sleep
EEG-electroemcephalogram
EMG-electromyogram
EOG-electrocculogram
236
Evaluation of brain activity
EEG-electroencephalogram
237
Evaluation of muscle tone
EMG-electromyogram
238
Evaluation of eye movement
EOG-electrocculogram
239
Characterized by relatively desynchronized alpha and beta waver
wakefulness
240
Characterized by relatively synchronized theta and delta waves
Slow-wave sleep
241
Characterized by an EEG resembling wakefulness
Rapid-eye-movement sleep
242
90-120 minute cycle that characterize both sleep and wakefulness
ultradian cycles
243
Wave that are given off when you are awake and alert
Beta waves
244
Wave that are given off when you are zoning out
Alpha waves
245
Stage of sleep characterized by theta waves and is the transition between waking and sleeping
Stage one
246
Stage of sleep characterized by theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes. person is asleep, but if woken will claim was not asleep
Stage two
247
Stage of sleep characterized by theta wave and 20-50% delta waves. Considered slow wave sleep
Stage three
248
Stage of sleep characterized by greater than 50% delta waves, considered slow wave sleep. If awakened will feel groggy and confused
Stage four
249
bursts of low amplitude high frequency waves
sleep spindles
250
bursts of High amplitude low frequency waves
K complexes
251
What happens to the EEG in REM
resembles wakefulness
252
What happens to the EOG in REM
it becomes active
253
What happens to the EMG in REM
it becomes flat
254
What type of sleep do we spend more time in during the first half of the night
Slow wave sleep
255
What type of sleep do we spend more time in during the second half of the night
REM sleep
256
If we do not get enough sleep what type of sleep will we lose out on more
REM sleep
257
How often do episodes of REM occur
every 90-120 minutes
258
related with drops in overall sleep and proportion of SWS
aging
259
Rhythms that last 24 hours
circadian rhythms
260
Rhythms that are less than 24 hours
Ultradian rhythms
261
Body's master clock
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
262
Area of the brain that if you lesion it will abolish the normal 24-hour rhythms of sleep, activity, body temperature, drinking and steroid secretion
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
263
Pathway that provides information about light to the suprachiasmatic nucleus
retinohypothalamic pathway
264
Where is the suprachiasmatic Nucleus located
in the hypothalamus
265
What is the normal free running cycle of humans
25 hours
266
Environmental event that entrains biological rhythms
Zeitgeber
267
neural route formed by axons of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells from the retina to the suprachiasmatic neucleus
retinohypothalamic pathway
268
Why is the SCN active in the day and not in the night regardless if the animal is nocturnal or diurnal
Because the SCN responds to light and only tells animals whether it is day or night, but not how to behave
269
What are the three proteins produced by the SCN
Per, tim, clock
270
What proteins inhibit the production of clock
per and tim
271
What increases the production of per and time
clock
272
What is the cycle of per, tim and clock production
As the levels of per and tim fall the production of clock increases, as the production of clock increases the production of per and tim increases which results in a reduction in the production of clock
273
What inhibits the production of per and tim
light
274
nucleus that regulates the pineal gland's secretion of melatonin
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
275
Hormone that induces sleepiness
melatonin
276
neurotransmitter of the retinohypothalamic tract.
glutamate
277
released only at night by the retina and pineal gland
melatonin
278
When is growth hormone released
during deep sleep
279
what needs to be in tact for a blind person not to have sleep difficulty
the retina
280
When is cortisol release the highest
in the morning and drops during the day
281
why don't we sleep well during times of stress
Higher levels of cortisol are present during stress and cortisol decreases sleep
282
Gland that secretes melatonin
pineal gland
283
part of the brain that project to the thalamus and produce acetylcholine important in wakefulness
pedunclopontine/laterodorsal tegmentine
284
parts of the brain that projects to the cortex and produce acetylcholine important in wakefulness
basal forebrain
285
part of the brain that is important in wakefulness and produces norepinephrine
locus coeruleus
286
part of the brain that is important in wakefulness and produces serotonin
raphe nuclei
287
part of the brain that is important in wakefulness and produces histamine
tuberomammillary nucleus
288
part of the brain that is important in wakefulness and produces hypocretin/orexin
Lateral hypothalamus
289
neurotransmitter that is produced by the PPD/LDT and basal forebrain and is important for alertness or cortical arousal
acetylcholine
290
Areas of the brain that become active when we shift from sleepiness to wakefulness or slow-wave sleep to REM sleep
PPD/LDT
291
neurotransmitter that comes from the locus coeruleus and produces arousal
norepinephrine
292
neurotransmitter that is comes from the raphe nuclei
serotonin
293
neurotransmitter that comes from the tuberomammillary nucleus
histamine
294
neurotransmitter that is produced by the lateral hypothalamus
hypocretin/orexin
295
degeneration of hypocretin neurons
narcolepsy
296
At what point in development do we have equal parts REM and slow wave sleep
infancy
297
How does the SCN keep track of time
protein synthesis of per,tim and clock
298
How does light have an effect on the SCN keeping time
it effects the build up of per and tim
299
What is the most important zietgeber
sunlight
300
Why are zietgebers important
they reset the clock because we have a 25 hour free cycle
301
stimulates all of the other arousal areas of the brain
Hypocretin
302
Are of the brain that when stimulated produces sleepy behavior
Ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPA)
303
Where is the VLPA located
hypothalamus
304
This area when lesioned will produce fatal insomnia in animals
VLPA
305
describe the flip flop circuit in sleep
when awake the VLPA is inhibited by the arousal systems that are activated. When you are asleep the VLPA is activated and is inhibiting the arousal systems.
306
What flips the switch on the flip flop circuit
Hypocretin
307
neurons that do not receive input from the VLPA
Hypocretin
308
What are the two factors that control sleep
time of day and length of time spent awake
309
signaling chemical that is produced by brain metabolic pathways that inhibits neurons in the basal forebrain and its concentration builds while we are awake
adenosine
310
part of the flip flop circuit that has adenosine receptors
hypocretin
311
1st sign of REM sleep characterized by phasic bursts of activity that start in the pons, then move to the lateral geniculate nucleus, then to the occipital cortex
PGO waves
312
Sleep that is characterized by desynchronized EEG, muscular paralysis, rapid eye movement, increased genital activity
REM
313
Part of the brain that initiates REM
Parabrachial area
314
Area of the brain that activates basal forebrain, activates motor areas nuclei in the medulla, inhibits subcoerulear nucleus which in turn inhibits spinal motor neurons
Medial pontine reticular formation (MPRF)
315
Activated by the medial pontine reticular formation (MPRF) in REM
basal forebrain, motor areas in the medulla
316
Inhibited by the MPRF during REM
subcoerulear nucleus
317
What does the subcoerulear nucleus inhibit
spinal motor nerves
318
Why do we sleep
it is adaptive and restorative
319
The amount of sleep that an animal engages in depends on the availability of food and on safety considerations
adaptive hypothesis of sleep
320
Species with higher metabolic rates typically spend more time sleeping
Restorative Hypothesis of sleep
321
Type of sleep that rests the brain, rests and repairs the body and cools the brain
Slow wave sleep
322
what type of sleep deprivation has no effect on physical performance or stress levels, but does cause joint and muscle pain and severe cognitive effects
Slow wave sleep
323
Type of sleep that is important for brain development and learning
REM
324
Type of sleep deprivation that causes memory problems
REM sleep
325
Subjects deprived of this type of sleep will experience a type of rebound that will cause them to spend a greater portion of time in this type of sleep
REM
326
Type of sleep in which dreams are more vivid, less story-like and longer
REM
327
difficulties with the initiation, maintenance, timing and quality of sleep
Dyssomnias
328
What are the three dyssomnias
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea
329
Unusual behaviors that intrude on normal sleep
Parasomnias
330
What are the 8 types of parasomnia
```
Nightmares
night terrors
sudden infant death syndrome
Sleep talking
Sleep walking
Enuresis
REM behavior disorder
Restless leg syndrome
```
331
inability to sleep or to obtain adequate quality sleep, to the extent that the person feels inadequately rested
insomnia
332
a disorder in which individuals fall asleep suddenly during the daytime and go directly into REM sleep
Narcolepsy
333
4 Symptoms of narcolepsy
sleep attack
cataplexy
sleep paralysis
hypnagogic hallucinations
334
Dreams while awake
hypnagogic hallucinations
335
Overwhelming urge to sleep
Sleep attack
336
muscular paralysis just before or after sleep
sleep paralysis
337
Complete muscular paralysis without loss of consciousness
cataplexy
338
People who are uncharacteristically physically active during sleep, often to the point of injuring themselves or their bed partners
REM sleep behavior disorder
339
Disorders that REM sleep behavior disorder is linked to
Parkinson's and brain stem tumors
340
Bodies in the medulla that may affect the ability of the magnocellular nucleus to produce the atonia of REM sleep
Lewy bodies
341
What is the treatment for REM sleep behavior disorder
benzodiazepines
342
Who is the cutest girl in Cassa ever
Briana
