Exam 2 Flashcards
(205 cards)
1
Q
sensation
A
process by which sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimuli
visual image, sounds, etc.
2
Q
perception
A
process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
allows us to reorganize/give meaning to objects and events
3
Q
3 steps of perception
A
reception - sensory neurons stimulated
transformation/transduction - changing stimuli to neural impulses
transmission - sending neural info to brain
4
Q
prosopagnosia
A
sensation without perception
blindsight - all 3 steps of sensation are occurring but brain processing area damaged so no perception
5
Q
low level vision
A
finding edges, detecting colors, locating objects in space
sensation
6
Q
mid level vision
A
determining object features, separating objects from background
perception
7
Q
high level vision
A
object, face, and scene recognition
8
Q
bottom-up processing
A
small pieces of info combine to form perception
input used to interpret
assumes no effect from cognition or previous experience
9
Q
top-down processing
A
assumes prior experience has effect
expectations, theories, concepts guide selection and combination of info into perception
concepts and input used to interpret
10
Q
absolute threshold
A
minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus half the time
11
Q
subliminal stimuli
A
below our threshold for being able to consciously detect a stimulus
below absolute threshold
cannot be used to learn complex knowledge
12
Q
primed
A
picking up content that unconsciously affects our thoughts and choices
13
Q
perceptual set
A
what we expect to sense, which influences what we do sense
top-down processing
14
Q
wavelength of light
A
determines color/hue
15
Q
amplitude of light
A
intensity
determines brightness
16
Q
accomodation
A
changing shape of lens to focus on near or far objects
17
Q
blind spot
A
where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptor cells here
18
Q
path of light thru eye
A
enters thru cornea
passes thru pupil and iris, then lens
inverted object projected to retina
retina sends neural impulses to brain
19
Q
retina
A
light triggers photochemical reaction in rods and cones at back
bipolar cells then activated
bipolar cells activate ganglions whose axons converge to form optic nerve
20
Q
cones
A
fewer # than rods
center of retina
high color and detail sensitivity
bad in low light
21
Q
rods
A
more than cones
periphery of retina
good in low light
poor color and detail sensitivity
22
Q
visual cortex
A
located in occipital lobe
optic nerve goes thru thalamus to VC
23
Q
trichromatic theory
A
3 types of cones: RGB
leads to color blindness (missing red or green)
caused by different opsins in cones, respond to different wavelengths
24
Q
opponent-process theory
A
ganglion cells respond to pairs of primary colors
red vs green
yellow vs blue
25
negative afterimage
caused by adaptation to firing rates
blue light inhibits yellow cells
blue light ends and yellow cells "rebound" firing faster than normal so we see yellow
26
gestalt principles
how parts are grouped together into a whole
proximity: if they are nearby each other
similarity: if they are similar somehow
closure: if they complete a figure
good continuity: not changing direction
symmetry: often found despite disorganization
common fate: objects that move together
27
perceptual constancy
top-down processing
perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
shape, size, brightness, color
28
color constancy
brain compensates for shading
| perceiving familiar objects to have constant color despite changing illumination changing the color
29
brightness constancy
brains compensating for shadowing by perceiving constant color shade/brightness
30
shape constancy
constant shape despite different sensory images
31
frequency of sound
corresponds to perception of pitch
32
amplitude of sound
loudness/volume
33
hearing
pressure changes in cochlear fluid cause basilar membrane to bend hair cells lining surface
hair cells trigger impulse in adjacent nerve cells that converge to form auditory nerve
auditory nerve > thalamus > auditory cortex
34
McGurk effect
sight influencing sounds heard
| ba vs. fa
35
conductive hearing loss
sound is not reaching inner ear
caused by disruption of ear canal, damage to eardrum, malfxn in ossicles
treatable with surgery or hearing aid
36
sensorineural hearing loss
inner ear, generally damaged hair cells
caused by loud noise, aging, viruses
sometimes treatable with Cochlear implant
37
cochlear implant
microphone and signal processor
electrode array inserts into cochlea, follows snail-like curl and rests on entire basilar membrane
processor analyzes sounds and stimulates electrodes on different parts of membrane based on pitch
38
cutaneous senses
touch, temperature, pain
39
touch
encapsulated mechanoreceptors
| movement of skin results in movement of receptor dendrites, located within encapsulated endings
40
temperature
cold sensors located just below epidermis
| warmth sensors located more deeply in skin
41
nociceptors
pain receptors
intense pressure, high-threshold mechanoreceptors (striking, stretching, pinching)
heat, acids, capsaicin receptors
environmental irritants (chemicals) receptors
42
Why is pain important?
evolutionary: protects us from repeatedly damaging our bodies
Insensitivity could mean we constantly harm ourselves without knowing
43
CIPA
congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis
inability to feel pain, heat, or cold
can still feel normal touch pressure
44
phantom limb pain
sensation that an amputated limb is still attached to the body
pain, pressure, tickling, temp reported
unknown cause, cortical reorganization or PNS possible
45
causes of phantom limb pain
cortical reorganization: loss of limb results in adjacent regions moving in to that territory
peripheral nervous system: improper inputs to nerve endings at the site of amputation
46
taste
sweet: energy source
sour: potentially toxic acids
umami/savoriness: proteins to grow and repair tissue
bitter: potential poisons
salty: sodium for physiological processes
47
neurochemistry of taste
taste receptor cells send messages to thalamus then to temporal lobe
papillae and taste buds
48
3 types of papillae
circumvallate: one at bottom middle
foliate: some on sides at middle
fungiform: tip
49
papillae
small protuberances of the tongue
50
taste buds
groups of 20-50 receptor cells located in papillae
cilia protrude thru pores of taste bides into saliva coating tongue
cells wear out quickly, replaced every 10 days
51
smell steps
1. odorants bind to receptors
2. olfactory receptor cells activated, send signals to olfactory bulb
3. signals relay down axons to higher regions of brain
52
odors and perception
humans can recognize up to 10k odorants, only 339 different receptor types
molecules can bind to multiple receptor types, providing unique neural representation of odor
53
path of smell
bypasses thalamus
travels to to temporal lobe and limbic system, influencing learning and emotion
can form powerful learned associations
54
vestibular sense
allows us to sense position and movement of head and body, enabling balance
fluid filled chambers with hair cells send signals about movement, orientation
vestibular sacs, semicircular canals
55
sensory interaction
when different senses influence each other
56
sensory interaction
when different senses influence each other
57
learning
acquire new and relatively enduring info and behaviors
| relatively long term change in behavior based on experience
58
classical conditioning
learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate future events
after repeated exposure to 2 stimuli in sequence,
natural response to one stimulus can be triggered by new, predictive stimulus
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operant conditioning
changing behavior in response to consequences
60
cognitive learning
acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and info, rather than direct experience
61
behaviorism
watson and skinner
believed mental life was much less important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science
saw applications for controlling human behavior
62
pavlov
noticed dogs would salivate in response to neutral stimuli like seeing food or food dish, hearing footsteps
neutral stimuli no longer neutral
critical for survival
63
Pavlov's experiments
isolated dog and measured saliva output in response to various neutral stimuli
64
neutral stimulus
one which does not trigger a response before conditioning (bell)
65
unconditioned stimulus and response
one that triggers a response naturally, without any condition (food itself)
66
conditioned response
after conditioning, response to conditioned (formerly neutral) stimulus`
67
acquisition
initial stage of learning/conditioning
association between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is acquired
afterwards, UR is triggered by CS, strength of association increases
68
strength of CR
likelihood and intensity of NS triggering CR
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timing of acquisition
NS must be before US
| allows us to prepare for benefits/threats
70
extinction
diminishing of conditioned response
| US stops appearing with CS, so CR decreases
71
spontaneous recovery
following a rest period, presenting CS alone might lead to return of CR
72
renewal
change of context after extinction can cause a robust return of conditioned responding
73
generalization
tendency to have CR triggered by related stimuli, more stuff makes you drool
74
discrimination
learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization, less stuff makes you drool, specific pitch of bell
75
watson and fear
Little Albert conditioned to be fearful of white rats, then generalized this fear to other soft and furry things
76
operant conditioning
act of chosen behavior ("response") is followed by reward or punishment from environment
reinforced behavior more likely to be tried again
punished behavior less likely to be chosen in future
77
classical vs. operant conditioning
classical: NS before respondent behavior, triggers that behavior
operant: stimulus follows operant behavior, reinforcing or punishing it
78
operant behavior
chose behaviors which "operate" on the environment
79
Thorndike's Law of Effect
behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely
behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences became less likely
cats solving puzzle faster to get reward
80
reinforcement
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
+: adding something desirable (warmth)
-: removing something unpleasant (cold)
81
successive approximation
when something is unlikely to perform desired behavior, can reward any behavior that comes close
82
primary reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus, e. g. one that satisfies biological need
food, water, sex, shelter
83
secondary reinforcer
gains its reinforcing power thru association with primary reinforcer
money, grades, etc.
84
delayed reinforcement
dogs only respond to immediate reinforcement
humans can link a consequence to a behavior even if not linked sequentially
delaying gratification, related to impulse control, allows long term goal setting
85
continuous reinforcement
reward after target every single time, learning is rapid, extinction occurs quickly
86
partial/intermittent reinforcment
rewards given part of the time
| target behavior takes longer to be acquired but is more resistant to extinction
87
punishment
weakens behavior that it follows
+: adding something undesirable
-: ending something pleasant
88
critical period
period during which specific biological or environmental events are required for normal development to occur
89
sensitive period
time in an organism's development during which a particular experience has an especially profound effect
90
teratogen
agent that can reach embryo or fetus during prenatal development
chemicals, viruses
91
newborns
have reflexes: rooting, startle
| demonstrate learning: habituation and prefernces
92
maturation
biologically-driven growth and development enabling orderly (predictably sequential) changes in behavior
lift head, sit up, crawl, walk
sets sequence, but not timing of events
93
early neural development
womb: # of neurons grows by 750k per minute in middle trimester
birth: connections b/t neurons proliferate
infancy: connections formed in less complex parts of brain (stem, motor cortex, limbic system)
early childhood: neural connections in association areas proliferate
94
infantile amnesia
memories not formed like in adulthood
can still learn skills (procedural memories) and implicit memories
explicit memories start around age 3
encoding or retrieval issue due to different way of thinking in adults
95
cognition
the mental activities that help us function
| problem solving
96
Piaget's theory
mind develops through series of universal stages
| sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
97
schemas
script to understand the world
mental containers built to hold our experiences
images, models, concepts
used to assimilate info, adjusted thru accomodation
98
assimilation
interpret experience using existing schemas
99
accommodation
adapt schemas to incorporate new info
100
sensorimotor stag
birth to 2 years
experiencing world through senses and actions
object permanence, stranger anxiety
101
preoperational stage
about 2 to 6-7
representing things with words and images, using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
pretend play, egocentrism
102
concrete operational
7-11 years
thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies, performing arithmetical operations
conservation, mathematical transformations
103
formal operational
age 12 thru adulthood
abstract reasoning
abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning
104
object permanence
awareness that things continue to exist after losing sight of them
develops about 8 months
learned through games like peekaboo
105
egocentrism
difficulty perceiving things from other people's POV, resolves around 6 years
106
theory of mind
ability to read mental state of others
107
conservation
of number: 5-6
of volume: 9-10
quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
108
Harlow's monkeys
showed that attachments are vital to infants
| always seek emotional ties
109
strange situations test
1. mother and child placed in strange room and allowed to explore
2. stranger enters, talks to mother, approaches child while mother leaves room
3. mother returns
secure, insecure-anxious, insecure-avoidant
show level of attachment between mother and child
110
secure attachment
60% of children, feel distress when mother leaves and seek contact with her when she returns
111
insecure attachment, anxious style
cling to mother and less likely to explore environment
| may get loudly upset when mother leaves and remain upset after her return
112
insecure attachment, avoidant style
seeming indifferent to mother's departure and return
113
deprivation of attachment
lower IQ scores, double rate of anxiety symptoms
| children do not readily recover from abusive past
114
resilient
ability of children to bounce back, attach and succeed after an abusive past
115
authoritarian parenting style
"too hard"
| parents impose rules "because I said so" and expect obedience
116
permissive parenting style
"too soft"
| parents submit to kid's desires, not enforcing limits or standards for child behavior
117
authoritative parenting style
"just right"
parents enforce rules, limits, and standards but also explain, discuss, listen, and express respect for child's ideas and wishes
predicts high self-reliance, social competence, self-esteem, and low aggression
nature vs. nurture?
118
puberty
time of sexual maturation, becoming able to reproduce
increased sex hormones so increased primary and secondary sex characteristics, changes in mood behavior
height change, romantic interest
119
puberty timing
sequence is predictable but time of onset varies by person
120
What stage of development are adolescents in?
formal operational
121
Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Thinking
preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality
122
preconventional morality
before age 9
| self-interest, obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
123
conventional morality
early adolescence
| uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
124
postconventional morality
adolescence and beyond
| actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles
125
runaway trolley dilemma
throwing switch to save five by killing one or pushing one to save five
stronger emotional response to physically pushing man, greater vmPFC activation
126
moral intuition
Jonathan Haidt, moral decisions often driven by quick, gut-feeling decisions
emotions like disgust or elevated feelings (donating to charity)
127
Erikson's model of social development
lifelong psychosocial development
adolescents struggle to form an identity/sense of self
try out different selves with others
also develop capacity for intimacy
128
adolescent psychosocial development
identity vs. role confusion
teenagers refine their sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
peer relationships take center stage but parents still primary influence
129
emerging adulthood
delay of full adult independence beyond traditional adolescence from about ages 18-25
more prevalent in Wester cultures
years of education, later marriage
130
when do adults peak physically
mid 20s
muscular strength, cardiac output, reaction time, sensory sensitivity
natural ability/peak
131
middle adulthood physical changes
40-60, lifestyle and biological decline
gradual decline in sexual activity (usually)
women enter menopause around 50
132
Why do we die?
environment- accumulation of stress, damage, and disease wears us down until one kills us
genes - some people have genes protecting against some kinds of damage
shortening telomeres, poor healing
133
death deferral
less people die on/around holidays, difference made up for afterwards
134
physical changes with age
declining visual acuity, hearing (higher pitches), reaction time, motor abilities, neural processing speed (esp. novel tasks)
135
exercise and dementia
improves muscle/bone strength, stimulates neurogenesis in hippocampus, improves memory and cognition, reduces dementia risk
136
changes in brain with age
regions related to memory shrink, harder to form new memories
frontal lobes atrophy: decreased inhibition and self-control
myelin-enhanced neural processing speed declines (peaks in teens)
137
alzheimer's, dementia
not a normal part of aging
decreased ability to recall recent events, names of familiar objects/people
emotional unpredictability
confusion, disorientation
138
physiological changes in Alzheimer's
loss of brain cells and neural network connections
deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine (memory nt)
misfolded proteins aggregate, kill cells
dramatic loss of tissue
139
crystallized intelligence
ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience
| related to long-term memory access and use
140
fluid intelligence
ability to reason and solve novel problems
141
memory changes with age
rote memorization ability declines more than learning meaningful info
prospective memory (remembering to do) declines
ability to learn skills slower to decline than to learn info
142
cross-sectional studies
compare people at different ages all at one time
143
longitudinal studies
compare attributes of the same people as they age over time
144
midlife crisis
re-evaluation of one's life plan and success, does not have a specific age
25% of adults, trigger often is a challenge like illness, divorce, job loss, parenting
may be related to "social clock" of achievement expectation
145
golden years "silver lining"
senior attend less to negative info, more to positive info
| accumulate longer-lasting mild + memories, lose - memories
146
coping with death
no standard pattern/length of the grieving process
grief is more intense if death is sudden/too early
support groups, facing reality of death, affirming value of life all help
147
modeling behavior
especially likely to learn from people who are likable and/or similar to us
behavioral inhibitions lowered
148
vicarious learning
our behaviors or modified by observing other's actions and the consequences/rewards that follow
149
mirror neuron hypothesis
theory that there are neurons that fire when observing another's actions/emotions
150
imitation
animals/humans likely to imitate behaviors and emotions of others
tool use in monkeys
may explain empathy
151
implications of observational learning
prosocial vs. antisocial effects imitated
152
conditioned taste aversion
we easily learn to avoid foods that have made us sick
| easy to acquire, difficult to extinguish
153
measuring memory
three behaviors
| recall, recognition, relearning
154
information-processing model
encoding: processing info into memory system
storage: retention of encoded info over time
retrieval: process of getting memory out of storage
155
atkinson-shiffrin model
sensory memory separate from short term and long term
156
sensory memory
immediate and brief recording of sensory info before its processed into short or long term memory
auditory = echoic
visual = iconic
157
sensory storage
allows us to deal with nearly unlimited sensory info at all times
acts as buffer, stored long enough for us to pay attention to it, rarely conscious of it
unlimited capacity, short duration, attention determines what enters ST memory
158
whole report
sperling task, tests iconic memory
name as many items as possible after 50 ms
most report 4-5, items fading as trying to say them
159
partial report
sperling task, name only items from a cued row, people see more
160
duration and capacity of sensory storage
duration is limiting factor, only about one second
| capacity could be unlimited
161
auditory rehearsal
repeatedly saying something to keep it in working memory
phonological loop
limited resource
162
short term memory
extremely short lived without working memory
| low capacity, only about 18 seconds
163
working memory
active stage brain working with information
correlated with intelligence
7 +/- 2 rule for # of info pieces
164
serial position effect
information at beginning and end of lists is easiest to remember
info in middle is usually forgotten
165
primacy effect
remember early info
| serial position effect
166
recency effect
remember recently learned info
| serial position effect
167
effortful processing strategies
lead to better encoding
ways to encode info into memory to keep it from decaying and make it easier to retrieve
grouping, mnemonics, rehearsal, deep processing
168
chunking
organizing data into manageable units, splitting it up
| works better if you can assemble into meaningful groups
169
mnemonics
memory aids, techniques that use vivid imagery and organization
170
hierarchy
a branching/nested set of categories and subcategories
171
spacing effect
increasing cues can aid memory retrieval
| distributed learning better than mass learning
172
deep processing
more likely to retain info if we deeply process the meaning/semantics of words
173
shallow processing
memorizing sound or appearance of words, not easy to retain
174
self-reference effect
relating material to ourselves, aids encoding and retention
175
divisions of long-term memory
explicit: semantic and episodic
implicit: procedural and perceptual
176
explicit memories
AKA declarative, can be declared/described
consciously seek to store and retrieve
semantic and episodic
177
semantic memories
part of explicit memory
conceptual knowledge or facts
persists longer than episodic
can be enhanced when associated with episodic, personal semantic memory
178
episodic memories
part of explicit memory
stores and connects specific times, places, and events in an individual's life
allows us to relive experiences through conscious experience of recollection
can be lost, leading to only semantic memory
179
implicit memory
learning without necessarily being aware that we are doing so
mental functions that can be performed automatically in the background
procedural and perceptual
buy product but don't remember commercial
cerebellum and basal ganglia
180
procedural memory
allows us to remember and use skills to perform tasks
part of implicit memory
don't remember learning the skills
unable to explain how task should be performed
181
perceptual memory
part of implicit memory
difficult to describe but recalled effortlessly
learning to recognize a particular stimulus, such as appearance, voice, scent
182
broken line drawings
shown sets of lines until subject recognizes drawing
tested 1 hour later for retention, subjects recognize object faster if perceptual learning occurred
HM better after 1 hour
retested 4 months later
HM still better than original test
183
metamemory
our awareness of our memory system and what we have stored there
feeling of knowing and tip of tongue phenomenon
184
feeling of knowing
a sense that we know something but can't recall it, usually accurate
persists in amnesia
185
tip of the tongue phenomenon
the temporary inaccessibility of a word in long term memory
occurs in many languages
more common in older adults, sound based codes play a role in retrieving word
186
HM
can learn procedural and perceptual memories
| no new explicit memories even though he had some from before
187
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve info from the past, often temporary
188
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories, specifically long-term explicit memories
can still form implicit memories
189
memory consolidation
encoding and storage of explicit memories, performed in hippocampus
not permanently held there
190
implicit memory processing
cerebellum and basal ganglia form and store conditioned responses, procedural and motors skills (implicit memory)
191
damaged amygdala
allows for functioning explicit memory, but emotional component of the memory is lost
192
flashbulb memories
emotion-charged memories are captured with great detail, emotion affects storage and retrieval
193
priming
unconsciously triggers thread of associations that bring us to a concept
subliminal and supraliminal
unconscious memories can influence how we interpret things
kids who see santa are more generous
194
forgetting
can happen at any stage: encoding, storage, or retrieval
195
storage decay
material encoded into LTM will decay if the memory is never used, recalled, and re-stored
memories can decay quickly but what doesn't decay stays for a long time
196
encoding failure
we selectively attend to a few things in the environment
| without rehearsal things are not encoded
197
retrieval failure
sometimes just below the surface, e.g. tip of the tongue phenomenon
better retrieval by encoding memories with more associations, linking
198
context-dependent memory
memory is a web of associations
we retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as when we formed the memory
more familiar cues = more likely to retrieve
we associate cues with a target at encoding
199
state-dependent learning
```
information learned in one state is best recalled in that same state
physical state (intoxication), emotional state, mood
```
200
proactive interference
old stimuli/learning interferes with storage and retrieval of newly formed memories
201
retroactive interference
new stimuli/learning interferes with storage and retrieval of previously formed memories
202
positive transfer
old info makes it easier to learn new info
| opposite of interference
203
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
memory is often susceptible to suggestibility, officers "leak" info, we recall things that didn't happen
confidence is not a good metric of accuracy
204
implanted memories
those implanted by suggestion and imagination
can be caused just by picturing an event
tend to add more imagined details once we have an inaccurate memory
205
source amnesia
forgetting where the story came from and attributing the source to your own experience
can help explain deja vu
