Exam 2 Flashcards
(85 cards)
1
Q
Bystander Effect
A
- the tendency of a bystander to be less likely to help in an emergency if there are other onlookers present
- Kitty Genovese
2
Q
Authority Ranking
A
-a form of exchange in which good are divided according to a person’s status in the group
3
Q
Communal Sharing
A
-a form of exchange in which members of a group share a pool of resources, taking when they are in need and giving when others are in need
4
Q
Domain-General Model
A
- a model that attempts to explain a wide range of different behaviors according to a simple general rule
- Such as: do it if it’s rewarding)
5
Q
Tit for tat
A
-a negotiating tactic in which the individual responds to competitiveness with competitiveness and to cooperation with cooperation
6
Q
Equality Matching
A
- a form of exchange in which each person gets the same as others
7
Q
Equity
A
-a state of affairs in which one person’s benefits and costs from a relationship are proportional to the benefits and costs incurred by his or her partner
8
Q
Androgynous
A
-demonstrating a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s behavior
9
Q
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style
A
-attachments marked by fear of abandonment and the feeling that one’s needs are not being met
10
Q
Attachment Love
A
-desire to be cared for, and protected by, another person
11
Q
Avoidant Attachment Style
A
-attachments marked by defensive detachment from the other
12
Q
Companionate Love
A
-affection and tenderness felt for those whose lives are entwined with our own
13
Q
Decision/Commitment
A
-factor on love scales composed of items tapping decision that one is in love with and committed to another
14
Q
Equity Rule
A
-each person’s benefits and costs in a social relationship should be matched to the benefits and costs of the other
15
Q
Erotomania
A
-a disorder involving the fixed (but incorrect) belief that one is loved by another, which persists in the face of strong evidence to the contrary
16
Q
Arousal/Cost-Reward Model
A
-the view that observers of a victim’s suffering will want to help relieve their own personal distress
17
Q
Diffusion of Responsibility
A
-the tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
18
Q
Empathic Concern
A
-compassionate feelings caused by taking the perspective of a needy other
19
Q
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
A
-the presumption that when one empathizes with the plight of another, one will want to help that other for purely altruistic reasons
20
Q
Friend
A
-someone with whom we have an affectionate relationship
21
Q
Health Psychology
A
-the study of behavioral and psychological factors that affect illness
22
Q
Factor Analysis
A
-a statistical technique for sorting test items or behaviors into conceptually similar groupings
23
Q
Intimacy
A
-factor on love scales composed of items tapping feelings of close bonding with another
24
Q
Inclusive Fitness
A
-the survival of one’s genes in one’s own offspring and in any relatives one helps
25
Market Pricing
-a form of exchange in which everyone gets out infproportion to what they put in
26
Mere Exposure Effect
-the tendency to feel positively toward people, places, or things we have seen frequently
27
Monogamy
-marital custom in which one man marries one woman
28
Mood Management Hypothesis
-the idea that people use helping tactically to manage their moods
29
Proximity-Attraction Principle
-the tendency to become friends with those who live or work nearby
30
Reinforcement-Affect Model
-the theory that we like people with whom we associate positive feelings and dislike those with whom we associate negative feelings
31
Self-Disclosure
-the sharing of intimate information about oneself
32
Social Capital
-assets that can be drawn from one's network of personal relationships
33
Social Exchange
-the trading of benefits within relationships
34
Social Support
-emotional, material, or informational assistance provided by other people
35
Need-Based Rule
-each person in a social relationship provides benefits as the other needs them, without keeping account of individual costs and benefits
36
Need to Belong
-the human need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships
37
Nurturant Love
-feelings of tenderness and concern, central to parents caring for their children
38
Passion
-factor on love scales composed of items tapping romantic attraction and sexual desire
39
Passionate Love
-a state of intense longing for union with another
40
Polyandry
-marital arrangement involving one woman and more than one husband
41
Polygamy
-marital custom in which either one man marries more than one woman (polygyny) or one woman marries more than one man (polyandry)
42
Polygyny
-marital arrangement involving one man and more than one wife
43
Secure Attachment Style
-attachments marked by trust that the other person will continue to provide love and support
44
Secure Base
-comfort provided by an attachment figure, which allows the person to venture forth more confidently to explore the environment
45
Sociosexual Orientation
-individual differences in the tendency to prefer either unrestricted sex (without the necessity of love) or restricted sex (only in the context of a long-term, loving relationship)
46
Personal Norms
-the internalized beliefs and values that combine to form a person's inner standards for behavior
47
Perspective Taking
-the process of mentally putting oneself in another's position
48
Pluralistic Ignorance
-the phenomenon in which people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone acts inconsistently with their beliefs
49
Prosocial behavior
-action intended to benefit another
50
Pure (or true) altruism
-action intended solely to benefit another
51
Reciprocal Aid
-helping that occurs in return for prior help
52
Social Responsibility Norm
-the societal rule that people should help those who need them to help
53
Two-Factor Theory of Love
-the theory that love consists of general arousal (factor 1), which is attributed to the presence of an attractive person and labeled as love (factor 2)
54
Sempo Sugihara
- mid career diplomat in Japanese consulate in Lithuania
- came from samurai family (code of virtues)
- ignored request denial from Tokyo and began writing travel docs for jews at severe cost to his career
- influenced by childhood, prior attachment to a victim, and his samurai code
55
Reciprocal Altruism
- I will help you now and later, when I need help, you will help me
- there is a possibility that someone will cheat and not help later (time delay)
56
Prisoner's Dilemma
- game theory model that resembles the problem of reciprocal altruism
- 2 people arrested for a crime
- 2 people are interrogated separately
- if no one talks, they both get reduced sentence (no evidence)
- if one talks, they get a reward and are set free
- if one talks, the one who doesn't gets the full blame for the crime
- if both talk, they are both punished (but less than full blame)
- sucker's payoff = you cooperate and partner defects (you get all the blame)
- best strategy in a 1-shot PD is to defect (talk)
- best strategy in ongoing game = cooperate
57
Design features necessary for engaging in reciprocal altruism
- ability to recognize different individuals
- ability to remember interaction history (have they cheated in the past?)
- ability to communicate one's values/needs
- ability to understand one's values/needs
- ability to think abstractly in terms of social exchange items (beyond kind-for-kind interactions)
58
Wason Selection Task (descriptive vs. social contract problems)
- hypothesis that human mind specialized mechanisms to operate in social exchange relationships, specifically social contracts
- social contracts: reasoning improved dramatically when the problem was in the form of a social exchange situation
- not necessary to be familiar with a problem as long as it is in the form of a social contract
59
Social Contract
-individual must satisfy a requirement of some kind in order to receive a benefit from another individual (or group)
60
Features of a cheater detection system
- circuits that allow us to reason about cheating and other aspects of social exchange
61
3 Routes to Altruism
- kin selection (inclusive fitness)
- reciprocal altruism (mutual benefit; non-related individuals; advantageous for ancestors)
- niche specialization (the banker's paradox)
62
Limitations of reciprocal altruism
- explanations of altruism have been cost-centered (an act was not considered altruistic if there was no cost incurred by the deliverer)
- altruism defined as directly enhancing another's reproductive success at a cost to oneself (but possible to confer other types of benefits like increased survival and longevity)
63
Alternative view to altruism (non-costly route)
- closer to ordinary usage of the term "altruism"
- to try to understand why others do nice things for each other whether or not costs are involved
- might be an easier path to evolution of altruism than reciprocal altruism
- it takes a lot for a tit for tat strategy to invade an always defect strategy
64
Effects of actions on others (positive externalities)
-
65
Abilities needed for this type of altruism to develop
-
66
Exchange vs communal relationships
- exchange relationships focus on benefits given and received and have an obligation to return comparable benefit
- communal relationships focus on needs and welfare of other individual and no distinctions are made between different relationships in communal category
67
Banker's Paradox and how it can apply to relationships, particularly friendship
- bankers have a limited amount of money and must choose who to invest in
- each choice to invest is a gamble
- they lend to the best credit risks, but these people rarely need loans
- "can't get a loan unless you can prove you don't need one"
- once you give someone time, you won't get it back
- invest in people that are irreplaceable
68
Irreplaceability
- people will come to your aid if you are irreplaceable to them
- your actions may unintentionally benefit another and others may find your actions valuable
69
Function of jealousy
- jealousy is activated when someone in one's own social circle develops similar abilities or when someone new enters the social group with similarly valued skills
- jealousy motivates and organizes actions that drive off attribute-rivals
- jealousy discourages others from developing potential relationships with rivals with the same skills
70
Friendship vs exchange
- the phenomenology of friendship that we experience reflects the pleasure we feel when we know someone enjoys our company, the desire to be thoughtful/considerate, the pleasure it gave you to help your friend, how memorable it was when a friend helped you
- exchange occurs when trust is low and friendship is weak or absent
- injecting explicit exchange into a friendship is awkward
71
Self-evaluation Maintenance Model (SEM)
- assumes people are motivated to maintain positive self-evaluation
- key aspects are closeness, performance, and relevance
- includes reflection and comparison processes
- threats to SEM cause individual to alter the self-relevance, alter the perceived performance of the other or self, and alter the closeness of the comparison other
72
Jealousy and the SEM
- jealousy occurs when there is a threat to a valued relationship
- individuals get jealous of strangers who have characteristics that their partner values
73
Tend and Befriend
- what females tend to do in stressful situations
- as oppose to "fight or flight"
- tend to the victim and band together with other females
74
Role parental investment theory plays in shaping male and female mate preferences
- any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases their change of survival at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring
- females have a much higher minimum investment
- the sex whose minimum obligatory PI is greater will become a limiting resource for the sex with the lower minimum
- the sex with lower minimum PI will compete with each other for access to members of the sex investing more (intersexual competition)
- intersexual selection: the sex that invests more will be choosier about selecting a mate
75
Similarities and differences between males and females with respect to mate preferences
- females more likely to favor status and wealth in men
- males more likely to favor appearance over status and wealth
- both look for dedication to offspring
- females focus on ability to protect
- both look for signs of health
- males look for signs of fertility
76
Reproductive value vs fertility
- reproductive value is the number of children a person of a given age and sex is likely to have in the future (peak is age 15-16 for women)
- fertility is the actual number of viable offspring produced (peak for women is age 20-21)
- males desire high fertility (if observable)
77
Cues to fertility
- youth
| - health
78
Cross-cultural evidence for mate preferences
- cross-cultural preference for good financial prospects in a marriage partner (higher for women)
- cross-cultural male preference for fertile females
- regardless of culture, lower WHR is seen as more attractive
- men value smooth clear skin, energetic dispositions, etc. (youthfulness)
79
Waist-Hip Ratio
- reliable cue of fertile age and fertility in general
- after puberty an increase in estrogen leads to fat deposits on hips and upper thighs
- related to fertility because women need a certain amount of stored gluteofemoral fat before becoming pregnant
- lower WHR is preferred
80
Paternity Certainty
- important for men to be able to ensure paternity
- males cannot be 100% sure of the paternity of their offspring so they should value traits that indicate fidelity or chastity
- knowledge of ovulation would be helpful (there are small signs)
81
Clark & Hatfield study
- asking men and women questions from strangers
- would you want to go on a date, would you want to come to my apartment, etc
- half the men and women agreed to a date
- not one woman agreed to go to bed
- males more willing to have sex than go on a date
82
Gottman's research on the Four Horsemen
- research on marital conflict
- 4 predictors of relationship dissolution
- criticism
- defensiveness
- contempt
- stonewalling
83
Sociometer Theory (Mark Leary)
- SE as a gauge, not as an end goal
- “Looking-glass” self = Much of what you think about yourself is a reflection of what you think other people think of you
- Measure of social inclusion, acceptance, “belongingness”
- Hypothesized adaptive (ultimate) function: retain group membership
- Hypothesized (proximal) function is to alert that “tank is low”
84
Kirkpatrick-Ellis theory of self-esteem
- Multiple gauges for monitoring multiple systems
- Different problems require different solutions
- Multiple domains of self-esteem (Within-group cooperation, Within-group competition, Between-group competition)
85
Kirkpatrick et al. empirical results
- Self-perceived superiority predicts increased aggression
- Perceived social inclusion predicts decreased aggression
- Global SE predicts nothing
- men more aggressive than women
