Final Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
Affordance
A
an opportunity or threat provided by a situation
2
Q
Attention
A
process of consciously focusing on aspects of our environment or ourselves
3
Q
Attitudes
A
favorable or unfavorable evaluations of a particular person, object, event, or idea
4
Q
Automaticity
A
ability of a behavior or cognitive process to operate without conscious guidance once it’s put into motion
5
Q
Chronically Accessible
A
state of being easily activated, or primed, for use
6
Q
Collectivistic Culture
A
a culture that socializes its members to think of themselves in terms of their relationships and as members of the larger social group and to prioritize the concerns of their relationship partners and groups before their own
7
Q
Counterfactual Thinking
A
process of imagining alternative, “might have been” versions of actual events
8
Q
Descriptive Norm
A
a norm that defines what behaviors are typically performed or commonly done in a situation
9
Q
Emotions
A
relatively intense feelings characterized by physiological arousal and complex cognitions
10
Q
Exemplar
A
a mental representation of a specific episode, event, or individual
11
Q
Goal
A
- a desired outcome
- something one wishes to achieve or accomplish
12
Q
Individualistic Culture
A
a culture that specializes its members to think of themselves as individuals to give priority to their personal goals
13
Q
Injunctive Norm
A
a norm that defines what behaviors are typically approved or disapproved
14
Q
Moods
A
relatively long-lasting feelings that are diffuse and not directed toward particular targets
15
Q
Motivation
A
the force that moves people toward desired outcomes
16
Q
Motive
A
a high-level goal fundamental to social survival
17
Q
Person-situation Fit
A
the extent to which a person and a situation are compatible
18
Q
Pluralistic Ignorance
A
the mistaken impression on the part of group members that, because no one else is acting concerned, there is no cause for alarm
19
Q
Priming
A
the process of activating knowledge or goals, of making them ready for use
20
Q
Reflected Appraisal Process
A
the process through which people came to know themselves by observing or imagining how others view them
21
Q
Schema
A
a mental representation capturing the general characteristics
22
Q
Scripted Situation
A
a situation in which certain events are expected to occur in a particular sequence
23
Q
Self-concept
A
a mental representation capturing our views and beliefs about ourselves
24
Q
Self-esteem
A
our attitude toward ourselves
25
Self-perception process
the process through which people observe their own behavior to anger internal characteristics such as traits, abilities, and attitudes
26
Self-presentation
- the process through which we try to control the impressions people form of us
- synonymous with impression management
27
Self-regulation
-the process through which people select, monitor, and adjust their strategies in an attempt to reach their goals
28
Social Comparison
the process through which people come to know themselves by comparing their abilities, attitudes, and beliefs with those of others
29
Socialization
the process whereby a culture teaches its members about its beliefs, customs, habits, and language
30
Bait-and-switch Technique
gaining a commitment to an arrangement, then making the arrangement unavailable or unappealing and offering a more costly arrangement
31
Compliance
behavior change that occurs as a result of a direct request
32
Conformity
behavior change designed to match the action of others
33
Descriptive Norm
a norm that defines what behaviors are typically performed
34
Disrupt-then-reframe Technique
a tactic that operates to increase compliance by disrupting one's initial, resistance-laden view of a request and quickly reframing the request in more favorable terms
35
Door-in-the-face Technique
a technique that increases compliance by beginning with a large favor likely to be rejected and then retreating to a more moderate favor
36
Expert Power
the capacity to influence other people as a function of a person's presumed wisdom or knowledge
37
Foot-in-the-door Technique
a technique that increases compliance with a large request by first getting compliance with a smaller, related request
38
Injunctive Norm
a norm that defines what behaviors are typically approved or disapproved
39
Labeling Technique
assigning a label to an individual then requesting a favor that is consistent with the label
40
Low-ball Technique
gaining a commitment to an arrangement and then raising the cost of carrying out the arrangement
41
Norm of Reciprocity
the norm that requires that we repay others with the form of behavior they have given us
42
Obedience
compliance that occurs in response to a directive from an authority figure
43
Participant Observation
a research approach in which the researcher infiltrates the setting to be studied and observes its workings from within
44
Personal Commitment
anything that connects an individuals identity more closely to a position or course of actions
45
Reactance Theory
brehm's theory that we react against threats to our freedoms by reasserting those freedoms, often by doing the opposite of what we are being pressured to do
46
Social Influence
a change in overt behavior caused by real or imagined pressure from others
47
Social Validation
an interpersonal way to locate and validate the correct choice
48
That's-not-all Technique
a technique that increases compliance by "sweetening" an offer with additional benefits
49
Authoritarianism
the tendency to submit to those having greater authority and to denigrate those having less authority
50
Discrimination
behaviors directed toward people on the basis of their group members
51
Disidentify
to reduce in one's mind the relevance of a particular domain
52
Ingroup Bias
the tendency to benefit members of one's own groups over members of other groups
53
Minimal Intergroup Paradigm
an experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore the foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination
54
Perceived Outgroup Homogeneity
the phenomenon of overestimating the extent to which members within other groups are similar to each other
55
Prejudice
a generalized attitude toward members of a social group
56
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
the proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources
57
Scapegoating
the process of blaming members of other groups for one's frustrations and failures
58
Social Dominance Orientation
the extent to which a person desires that his or her own group dominate other groups and be socially and materially superior to them
59
Social Identity
the beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging
60
Stereotype
generalized belief about members of social groups
61
Stereotype Threat
the fear that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about one's group
62
Stereotyping
the process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group
63
Cohesiveness
the strength of the bonds among group members
64
Communication Network
the pattern of information flow through a group
65
Deindividuation
the process of losing one's sense of personal identity, which makes it easier to behave in ways inconsistent with one's normal values
66
Dynamical system
a system (group) made up of many interacting elements (people) that changes and evolves over time
67
Group
- two or more individuals who influence each other
| - stronger when members are interdependent and share a common identity, and they possess structure
68
Groupthink
a style of group decision making characterized by a greater desire among members to get along and agree with one another than to generate and critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and positions
69
Group Polarization
occurs when group discussion leads members to make decisions that are more extremely on the side of the issue that the group initially favored
70
Minority Influence
occurs when opinion minorities persuade others of their views
71
Role
expectation held by the group for how members in particular positions ought to behave
72
Social Facilitation
the process through which the presence of others increases the likelihood of dominant responses, leading to better performance on well-mastered tasks and worse performance on unmastered tasks
73
Social Loafing
reducing one's personal efforts when in a group
74
Transactive Memory
a group memory system made up of (1) the knowledge held by individual group members and (2) a communication network for sharing this knowledge among members
75
Transformational Leadership
leadership that changes the motivations, outlooks, and behaviors of followers, enabling the group to reach its goals better
76
Aggression
behavior intended to injure another
77
Assertiveness
behavior intended to express dominance or confidence
78
Indirect Aggression
behavior intended to hurt someone without face-to-face confrontation
79
Direct Aggression
behavior intended to hurt someone to his or her face
80
Emotional Aggression
hurtful behavior that stems from angry feelings
81
Instrumental Aggression
hurting another to accomplish some other (nonaggressive) goal
82
Displacement
indirect expression of an aggressive impulse away from the person or animal that elicited it
83
Catharsis
discharge of aggressive impulses
84
Social Learning Theory
theory that aggression is learned through direct reward or by watching others being rewarded for aggressiveness
85
Psychopath
- individual characterized by impulsivity, irresponsibility, low empathy, grandiose self-worth, and lack of sensitivity to punishment
- such individuals are inclined toward acting violently for personal gain
86
Differential Parental Investment
the principle that animals making higher investment in their offspring (female as compared to male mammals, for instance) will be more careful in choosing mates
87
Empathy
-the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
88
Defensive Attributional Style
a tendency to notice threats and interpret other people's behavior as intended to do one harm
89
Effect/Danger Ratio
assessment of the likely beneficial effect of aggressiveness balanced against the likely dangers
90
Natural Selection
the process by which characteristics that help animals survive and reproduce are passed on to their offspring
91
Adaptations
a characteristic that is well designed for survival and reproduction in a particular environment
92
Evolution
- Change over time in organic (living) structure
| - Due to both chance and natural selection
93
Bystander Effect
the tendency of a bystander to be less likely to help in an emergency if there are other onlookers present
94
Byproducts
-Characteristics that do not solve adaptive problems and do not have functional design but are carried along with adaptations
Ex: whiteness of bones; belly-button
95
Noise
-Random effects produced by forces such as chance mutation, sudden changes in environment, or chance effects during development
Ex: shape of belly button
96
Adaptive Problems
- a problem that affects survival and reproduction
- Our circuits are specialized to solve adaptive problems that our ancestors faced during our species’ evolutionary history
- Recurred over the course of the species’ history
- Solution to the problem affects reproduction either directly or indirectly
- Adaptations = problem-solving devices
97
Common Misunderstandings of Evolutionary Theory
- Human behavior is genetically determined (Genetic determinism)
- If it’s evolutionary we can’t change it
- The naturalistic fallacy: what is natural is good
- Evolutionary theory requires improbable computational abilities of organisms
- Current mechanisms are optimally designed
- Evolutionary theory implies a motivation to maximize gene reproduction
98
Levels of Explanation
- Adaptive problem
- Cognitive programs
- Neurophysiology
99
Functional Specialization
-brain is like a Swiss army knife
100
Domain Specificity
- many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices
101
Parental Investment
- any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases their change of survival at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring
- females have a much higher minimum investment
- the sex whose minimum obligatory PI is greater will become a limiting resource for the sex with the lower minimum
- the sex with lower minimum PI will compete with each other for access to members of the sex investing more (intersexual competition)
- intersexual selection: the sex that invests more will be choosier about selecting a mate
102
Instinct Blindness
- Seeing, reaching out and grasping an object, having a conversation
- Blind to our instincts because they work so well
103
Social Categorization
- Some ways we categorize each other (age, sex, kin versus non-kin, social status, friendship status, health, in-group versus out-group, race)
- Important info we can use to make inferences about behavior and other attributes
- Psychologists have claimed that 3 dimensions automatically activated when you encounter another individual are: age, sex, race
- Been difficult to find conditions under which race was not encoded
- Sex and age are primary dimensions
104
In-group vs. Out-group Psychology
- Random group assignment enough to elicit ingroup/outgroup effect
- ingroup bias
- us versus them
105
Robbers Cave Experiment
- 22 white 5th grade middle class boys (Didn't know each other prior to study)
- animosity began in first competition and continued
- name-calling, aggression
- boys saw members of their own group as positive and other groups as negative
- hostility toward other group continued after tournament
- only thing that relieved hostility was shared enemy of third group
106
Coalitional Psychology-How do we track alliances
-In not completely racially integrated societies, shared appearance may be correlated with patterns of association, cooperation, and competition
107
Memory Confusion Paradigm
-Can you erase the effects of race?
-Users errors in recall to see if individuals categorize targets along dimensions such as sex or race
-Much research using this paradigm has shown that people encode a target
-When only given verbal cues, individuals will categorize based on RACE more than COALITION
-When a visual cue is offered that tracks coalition (team membership), then people do NOT categorize by race
Rather, they categorize by COALITION
108
Stereotypes including positive vs negative stereotypes
- Generalized beliefs about members of a particular group
- Can be positive or negative
- Can be explicit or implicit
- Things we believe to be true about an individual based on their group classification
- Even positive stereotypes can have negative effects
109
Out-group Homogeneity and In-group Heterogeneity
-One basis for stereotypes is the tendency to see members of an outgroup as similar (called outgroup homogeneity) and members of your ingroup as different from each other (called ingroup heterogeneity).
110
Stigmatization (including what groups tend to be stigmatized)
- Occurs when an individual is negatively evaluated based on characteristic that distinguishes them from other members of society
- Mentally ill, Mentally retarded, Obese, Homosexuals, Cancer patients, Members of varies racial, ethnic, and religious groups, Social exclusion
111
Social Exclusion-evidence from both nonhumans and humans
- nonhuman: Territoriality as social exclusion, Status hierarchies (Individual at top excludes others from resources)
- human: dyadic cooperation (avoidance and punishment of cheaters), parasite avoidance
112
Putting the "brakes" on sociality
- For sociality to be functional, there must be brakes
- An organism that chose to socialize in any way with every other creature it encountered would be a strange one
- Natural selection should shape constraints and brakes on sociality
- The necessity to be discriminating in selection of partners
- Plays a role in the generation of stigma
113
Pathogens and parasite avoidance
-avoidance of those carrying pathogens
Parasites can have 3 main effects on a host:
-Can cause damage that disrupts symmetry
-May activate anti-parasite systems (preening/grooming)
-Parasites can manipulate their hosts to increase their own spread
114
Immune System
- adaptations to deal with pathogen threat
- immune system detects threat, has initial defense response, and then threat specific response
- metabolically costly
115
Behavioral Immune System
- Duncan
- behavioral immune system detects cues, uses the functionally appropriate affect and cognition, and chooses the functionally appropriate behavior
- involves sensory, emotional, and behavioral processes
116
False Sick vs. False Healthy and why they are not symmetrical errors
- false sick is when we think someone is infectious but they aren't; costs us social resources
- false healthy is when we think someone is healthy but they are infectious; costs us illness, mates, death
- overgeneralization bias (overly general set of cues that imply pathogens; tendency to think people are sick when they display potentially relevant cues)
- studies using the implicit association task
- Activation of evolved disease avoidance mechanisms may contribute to contemporary stigmas and prejudices in this particular form
117
Material from the documentaries we watched in class
-stanford prison study
| -
118
Robert Frank's view of emotions as commitment devices
- Questions classical view that was (and still is to some extent) held that we are rational, self interested calculators
- kidnapper problem (allow kidnapper to blackmail you)
- briefcase problem (expectation of responding irrationally is often a good deterrent)
119
Proposed functions of some of the different emotions
- fear = prep of fight or flight
- disgust = prep to vomit/expel potential pathogens
- sadness = withdraw, lick wounds, wait for better times, reassess and recalibrate
- anger = primary function is to regulate other persons' welfare tradeoff ratios with respect to you
120
Ekman's basic emotions
- fear, anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, contempt
- Much research shows that these basic emotions have identifiable facial expressions
- FACS
- cross cultural universality
- allows for frame-by-frame or slow-motion viewing
121
Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
- Anatomically bases system for measuring all visually discernible facial movement
- 44 action units
- Given muscle may contract in different regions
122
What is an action unit (AU)
-each one has a numeric code
123
What can be coded with FACS
- intensity of an action on a 5 pt scale
- timing of facial expressions
- events
- can be coded into emotion and non-emotion categories
124
Difference between Duchenne and non-Duchenne smiles
- Duchenne smiles: Orbicularis oculi muscle (Around eye) is recruited for smiles in spontaneous expressions of enjoyment
- non: non-enjoyment smile, orbiculares oculi not involved
125
Deception and how it relates to facial expression of emotion
- There is no single behavioral cue that tells you someone is lying
- Hot spots: Behavioral signs that contradict what someone is saying
- hot spots do not necessarily mean they are lying (Could be other reasons for inconsistency)
126
Effects of botox on emotion
- paralyzes underlying muscles
- hypothesis suggests botox interferes with process of reading feelings of others by mimicking facial expressions
- Dulls perception and interpretation of facial expressions of emotions in others
- in experiment, accuracy was lower in botox group for detecting emotions
127
Material from the documentaries we watched in class
- stanford prison study
- the human behavior experiments (fast food restaurants, 2005 frat brother died, kitty Genovese, smoke study, Abu Ghraib)
128
Display Rules
- eckman
- facial expressions of emotions are universal
- what differs are the display rules culture to culture
- Cultural and idiosyncratic differences in display rules
- Describe what people learn about the need to manage appearance of particular emotion in particular situations
129
Langur Monkeys and infanticide
- One resident adult male (Reproductively monopolizes females in troop)
- Once a new male gains control he systematically kills all infants in the troop
- Psychological design features of male langur only passed on if he becomes resident male of a troop
- fertility of the troop females is the major constraint of resident male's reproductive success
- Only new resident males commit infanticide
- Resident males do not kill infants in other troops
- Males don’t kill adult females
- Males don’t kill weaned offspring
- Males don’t commit infanticide throughout duration of their tenure
130
Step vs. Biological Parents
- A clear prediction from evolutionary psychology is that substitute parents will generally tend to care less profoundly for children than natural parents
- Increased risk of harm from a non-related parent than a natural parent
- Step parenthood is the single most powerful risk factor for child abuse that has yet been identified
- The highest rate of child abuse for kids living with one natural parent and one stepparent was age 0-4 (when costs are high)
131
Trivial Altercations
- Disputes started over petty issues
- Philadelphia homicides - 37% were trivial; All men - why?
- Escalated battle over status
132
Culture of Honor
- People (particularly men) ready to defend honor with violence if necessary
- Alcohol can affect our perception of things to make accidents seem intentional and then things escalate
- filing cabinet study (Southerners more aggressive)
