Exam 2 Flashcards
0
Q
Echoic memory
A
The brief memory of something a person just heard.
1
Q
The three processes of memory:
A
Storage, Encoding, Retrieval
2
Q
Iconic memory
A
Visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second.
3
Q
Short-term memory (STM)
A
The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used
4
Q
Long-term memory (LTM)
A
The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
5
Q
Levels-of-processing model
A
Model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to it’s meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
6
Q
Parallel distributed processing model (PDP)
A
A model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
7
Q
Information processing model
A
The model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages. The process of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval are part of this model.
8
Q
Working memory
A
An active system that processes the information in short term memory.
9
Q
Serial position effect
A
Information at the beginning and end of a list, such as a song or a poem tends to be remembered more easily and accurately.
10
Q
Sleep waves:
A
• Beta • Theta • Alpha • Delta
11
Q
Beta
A
The brainwaves a person has when they are wide awake and mentally active.
12
Q
Theta
A
Brainwaves indicating the early stages of sleep.
13
Q
Alpha
A
Brainwaves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.
14
Q
Delta
A
Long, slow waves that indicated the deepest stage of sleep.
15
Q
REM rebound
A
An increased amount of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.
16
Q
REM behavior disorder
A
A rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around an even get up and act out nightmares.
17
Q
REM paralysis
A
The inability of the voluntary muscles to move during REM sleep.
18
Q
Problem Solving
A
Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
19
Q
Heuristics
A
An educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. AKA a “rule of thumb.”
20
Q
Prototypes
A
An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
21
Q
Availability heuristic
A
Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.
22
Q
Means-end analysis
A
Heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference.
23
Q
Mental sets
A
The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
24
Confirmation bias
The tendency for people to search for evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
25
Divergent Thinking
The type of thinking in which person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
26
Convergent Thinking
Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.
27
Syntax
The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.
28
Phonemes
The basic units of sound in language.
29
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning within a language.
30
Longitudinal design
Research design in which one participant or a group of participants is studied over a long period of time.
31
Cross-sectional design
Research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.
32
Cross-sequential design
Research study design in which participants are first studied by means of cross-sectional design but are followed and assessed for a period of no more than 6 years.
33
Nature
The influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.
34
Nurture
The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
35
Critical period
Times during which certain environmental influences can have and impact on the development of the infant.
36
Germinal period
The first two weeks after germination, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant into the lining.
37
Embryonic period
The period from two weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism begin to develop.
38
Fetal period
The time from about 8 weeks after the conception until the birth of the child.
39
Scaffolding
Process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
40
Temperament styles
The behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up.
41
Attachment
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver. Usually occurs within the first 6 months and shows up in a number of ways in the 2nd 6 months.
42
Secure Attachment Style
Infants who are willing to get down off mom’s lap and explore happily. They occasionally return to mom as if they’re touching base. They become uncomfortable and upset when mom leaves the room and a stranger enters but are easily consoled when mom reenters.
43
Avoidant Attachment Style
They are somewhat willing to explore but do not touch base with mom. They react very little to mom leaving the room and a stranger entering. They do not look at the stranger or the mother.
44
Ambivalent Attachment Style
Means to ‘have mixed feelings’ about something. These babies were clingy and unwilling to explore. Upset about the stranger regardless of the mother’s presence. They became very upset when mom left the room and where hard to console.
45
Disorganized-disoriented Attachment Style
Babies who are unable to decide how they should react to the mother’s return. They would approach her but with eyes turned away as if afraid to make eye contact. They seemed generally fearful and showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces.
46
Telegraphic speech
Around a 1.5 yrs of age a child will begin to use short phases where only the meaningful words are said. “Doggy go bye-bye.”
47
Authoritarian Parenting Style
Style of parenting in which the parent is ridged and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.
48
Permissive Neglectful Parenting
Permissive parenting in which the parents are uninvolved with a child or child’s behavior.
49
Permissive Indulgent Parenting
Permissive parenting in which the parents are so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits.
50
Authoritative Parenting Style
Style of parenting in which parents combine warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior.
51
Permissive Parenting
Style of parenting in which the parent makes few, if any demands on the child’s behavior.
52
Erikson’s Theory
Babies shouldn’t be left to ‘cry it out’ because they need to develop attachment. Felt that social interactions where more important in development than sexual development. Believed that development occurred in 8 stages: Infant (Birth to 1 yr.), Toddler (1-3 yrs), Preschool Age (3-5 yrs), Elementary School Age (5-12 yrs), Adolescence (13- early 20s), Early Adulthood (20s and 30s), Middle Adulthood (40s and 50s), Late Adulthood (60s & up)
53
Kohlberg’s levels of morality
Kohlberg told several dilemma stories and asked many such questions to discover how people reasoned about moral issues. He identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
54
Motivation
The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
55
Extrinsic motivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.
56
Intrinsic motivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
57
Instincts
The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.
58
Primary Drive
The drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.
59
Secondary Drive
The drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.
60
Homeostasis
The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.
61
Drive-reduction Theory
Approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce the tension arousal.
62
Yerkes-Dodson law
Law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high-moderate level, whereas more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.
63
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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64
Drug tolerance
As a person continues to use a drug, larger and larger does are needed to achive the same initial effect of the drug.
65
Distress
The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors.
66
Eustress
The effect of positive events, or optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being.
67
General adaptation syndrome
The three stages of the body’s reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
68
Approach-approach conflict
Conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals.
69
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals.
70
Approach-avoidance conflict
Conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects.
71
Emotion-focused coping
Coping strategies that change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor.
72
Problem-focused coping
Coping strategies that try to eliminate the source of a stressor or reduce its impact through direct actions.
73
Hassles
The daily annoyance of everyday life.
102
Language development: Overextension- Underextension- Over-regularization-
?
103
Encoding
Stage 1 of the memory process. The set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.
104
Storage
Stage 2 of the memory process. Holding onto information for a certain period of time.
105
Retrieval
Stage 3 of the memory process. Getting the information that is stored into a form that can be used. (This is why it’s sometimes hard to remember things during a test.
106
The brief memory of something a person just heard.
Echoic memory
107
Visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second.
Iconic memory
108
The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used
Short-term memory (STM)
109
The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
Long-term memory (LTM)
110
Model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to it’s meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
Levels-of-processing model
111
A model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
Parallel distributed processing model (PDP)
112
The model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages. The process of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval are part of this model.
Information processing model
113
An active system that processes the information in short term memory.
Working memory
114
The brainwaves a person has when they are wide awake and mentally active.
Beta
115
Brainwaves indicating the early stages of sleep.
Theta
116
Brainwaves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.
Alpha
117
Long, slow waves that indicated the deepest stage of sleep.
Delta
118
An increased amount of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.
REM rebound
119
A rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around an even get up and act out nightmares.
REM behavior disorder
120
The inability of the voluntary muscles to move during REM sleep.
REM paralysis
121
Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Problem Solving
122
An educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. AKA a “rule of thumb.”
Heuristics
123
An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
Prototypes
124
Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.
Availability heuristic
125
Heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference.
Means-end analysis
126
The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
Mental sets
127
The tendency for people to search for evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
Confirmation bias
128
The type of thinking in which person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
Divergent Thinking
129
Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.
Convergent Thinking
130
The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.
Syntax
131
The basic units of sound in language.
Phonemes
132
The smallest units of meaning within a language.
Morphemes
133
Research design in which one participant or a group of participants is studied over a long period of time.
Longitudinal design
134
Research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.
Cross-sectional design
135
Research study design in which participants are first studied by means of cross-sectional design but are followed and assessed for a period of no more than 6 years.
Cross-sequential design
136
The influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.
Nature
137
The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Nurture
138
Times during which certain environmental influences can have and impact on the development of the infant.
Critical period
139
The first two weeks after germination, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant into the lining.
Germinal period
140
The period from two weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism begin to develop.
Embryonic period
141
The time from about 8 weeks after the conception until the birth of the child.
Fetal period
142
Process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
Scaffolding
143
The behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up.
Temperament styles
144
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver. Usually occurs within the first 6 months and shows up in a number of ways in the 2nd 6 months.
Attachment
145
Infants who are willing to get down off mom’s lap and explore happily. They occasionally return to mom as if they’re touching base. They become uncomfortable and upset when mom leaves the room and a stranger enters but are easily consoled when mom reenters.
Secure Attachment Style
146
They are somewhat willing to explore but do not touch base with mom. They react very little to mom leaving the room and a stranger entering. They do not look at the stranger or the mother.
Avoidant Attachment Style
147
Means to ‘have mixed feelings’ about something. These babies were clingy and unwilling to explore. Upset about the stranger regardless of the mother’s presence. They became very upset when mom left the room and where hard to console.
Ambivalent Attachment Style
148
Babies who are unable to decide how they should react to the mother’s return. They would approach her but with eyes turned away as if afraid to make eye contact. They seemed generally fearful and showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces.
Disorganized-disoriented Attachment Style
149
Around a 1.5 yrs of age a child will begin to use short phases where only the meaningful words are said. “Doggy go bye-bye.”
Telegraphic speech
150
Style of parenting in which the parent is ridged and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.
Authoritarian Parenting Style
151
Permissive parenting in which the parents are uninvolved with a child or child’s behavior.
Permissive Neglectful Parenting
152
Permissive parenting in which the parents are so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits.
Permissive Indulgent Parenting
153
Style of parenting in which parents combine warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior.
Authoritative Parenting Style
154
Style of parenting in which the parent makes few, if any demands on the child’s behavior.
Permissive Parenting
155
Babies shouldn’t be left to ‘cry it out’ because they need to develop attachment. Felt that social interactions where more important in development than sexual development. Believed that development occurred in 8 stages: Infant (Birth to 1 yr.), Toddler (1-3 yrs), Preschool Age (3-5 yrs), Elementary School Age (5-12 yrs), Adolescence (13- early 20s), Early Adulthood (20s and 30s), Middle Adulthood (40s and 50s), Late Adulthood (60s & up)
Erikson’s Theory
156
Kohlberg told several dilemma stories and asked many such questions to discover how people reasoned about moral issues. He identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Kohlberg’s levels of morality
157
The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
Motivation
158
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.
Extrinsic motivation
159
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
Intrinsic motivation
160
The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.
Instincts
161
The drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.
Primary Drive
162
The drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.
Secondary Drive
163
The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.
Homeostasis
164
Approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce the tension arousal.
Drive-reduction Theory
165
Law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high-moderate level, whereas more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.
Yerkes-Dodson law
166
Check
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
167
As a person continues to use a drug, larger and larger does are needed to achive the same initial effect of the drug.
Drug tolerance
168
The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors.
Distress
169
The effect of positive events, or optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being.
Eustress
170
The three stages of the body’s reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
General adaptation syndrome
171
Conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals.
Approach-approach conflict
172
Conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
173
Conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects.
Approach-avoidance conflict
174
Coping strategies that change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor.
Emotion-focused coping
175
Coping strategies that try to eliminate the source of a stressor or reduce its impact through direct actions.
Problem-focused coping
176
The daily annoyance of everyday life.
Hassles
177
?
Language development: Overextension- Underextension- Over-regularization-
178
Stage 1 of the memory process. The set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.
Encoding
179
Stage 2 of the memory process. Holding onto information for a certain period of time.
Storage
180
Stage 3 of the memory process. Getting the information that is stored into a form that can be used. (This is why it’s sometimes hard to remember things during a test.
Retrieval
