Exam 2 Chapter 5-8 Flashcards
(285 cards)
1
Q
Which of the following are true about gender?
A
- In many cultures, the belief is that everyone must be assigned a gender.
- There are some gender differences between males and females.
- There are some gender similarities between males and females.
2
Q
Testosterone plays a role in_______ , which could explain why males are more likely to be violent than females.
A
aggression
3
Q
Evolutionary psychology has been criticized for
A
- overemphasizing the role of nature
- hindsight bias
- reinforcing gender stereotypes
4
Q
The ________ perspective emphasizes human diversity and the ______ perspective emphasizes human kinship.
A
- cultural
- evolutionary
5
Q
Which of the following is/are examples of natural selection?
A
- The chameleon’s ability to change colors
- The speed of a cheetah
6
Q
Individual variation in personality is accounted for by
A
- Genetic influences
- Shared environment
- Peer influence
7
Q
Learning the rules, roles, and norms of your gender through cultural institutions is called
A
gender socialization
8
Q
Which group tends to have more permissive attitudes toward sex?
A
men
9
Q
Natural Selection
A
The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations.
10
Q
Evolutionary Psychology
A
The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection.
11
Q
Sex
A
males and females as two biological categories based on chromosomes, genitals, and secondary sex characteristics such as greater male muscle mass and female breasts
12
Q
Gender
A
In psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, that we associate with males and females.
13
Q
Transgender
A
Someone whose psychological sense of being male or female differs from their birth sex.
14
Q
Hominids migrated from Africa to Asia due to
A
- availability of food
- climate change
15
Q
Steven Pinker “sunscreen for the tropics”
A
people developed lighter skin to synthesize vitamin D
16
Q
Charles Darwin evolutionary process
A
Natural selection enables evolution
17
Q
Humans most fear
A
what is immediate and sudden
18
Q
Humans everywhere tend to agree on what
A
rank others by authority and status
19
Q
Socially how is gender defined
A
diminishing ambiguity of intersex children
20
Q
The transgender rate in the US
A
.4% (4 of 1,000)
21
Q
Differences in men and women
A
- Men think about sex more
- Masturbate more
- Desire greater number of sexual partners
22
Q
Why do men think of sex more
A
Cheap for men but a big commitment for women
Women invest reproductive opportunities through signs of resources and commitment
23
Q
Physically dominant males
A
excel in female attraction -> passed through generations
24
Q
Emotions execute
A
evolutions dipositions
25
*David Buss* humans are
living fossils produced by **prior selection pressures**
**Explains**
1. male aggression
2. differing sexual attitudes
3. behaviors of females and males
26
Testosterone
A **hormone** more prevalent in **males** than females is **linked to dominance and aggression.**
27
Androgynous
From andro (man) + gyn (woman)—thus mixing **both masculine and feminine characteristics.**
28
What **women look for in men** (evolutionary)
1. Men whose **wealth, power, and ambition** promise resources for protecting and nurturing offspring
2. Men slightly **older than them**
29
What **men look for in women** (evolutionary)
Fertility in women - by look of **youth and healthy**
30
What **both men and women look for in each other** (evolutionary)
1. Kindness
2. Love
3. Mutual attraction
31
**During ovulation**, women can
1. Detect **potential threatening man easier**
2. Detect **men's sexual orientation easier**
3. Behave more **flirtatiously**
32
Ways **biology influences sex** differences
* Men have higher levels of testosterone
* Only one chromosome Y (male)
33
People **maturing to middle age**
become **more androgynous**
* **_Women_** are
* **more assertive**
* **self-confident**
* **_Men_** more
* **empathic**
* **less domineering**
* Why?
* Hormone changes
* role demands
34
Evolutionary Psychologist research method
**start with finding** then **work backward** to construct explantation
35
Paul Ehrlich & Marcus Feldman
evolutionary theorists **hardly lose** when using **hindsight**
36
**Critics** of evolutionary psychology
**Explanations** for gang violence, homicidal jealousy, and rape might **justify male aggression as natural behaviors**
37
Epigenetics
The study of **environmental influences** on **gene expression** that occurs **without DNA change**.
38
Norms
Standards for **accepted and expected behavior**. Norms prescribe **“proper” behavior**. (In a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most others do—what is normal.)
39
Personal space
The **buffer zone** we like to **maintain around our bodies**.
Its **size depends on our culture** and our **familiarity** with whoever is near us.
40
**Nature predispose** us to
**learn** whatever **culture** we're **born into**
41
**Most** of our **behavior** is
socially prgrammed
42
How to **achieve peace**
Appreciation for both **genuine differences and deep similarities**
43
As **time** goes on our **world’s cultures**
**mingle** more than ever before
44
Individual choices and norms
Cultures vary in **emphasis of individual self**
45
Expressiveness and norms
Some cultures seem **more warm and friendly than others**
46
Rule-breaking and norms
**Collectivist** culture is more likely to **stigmatize people seen as different**
47
Judith Rich Harris
Nature Assumption -
**parental** nurture **govern** who children **become**
48
*Robert Plomin* & *Denise Daniels* **developmental psychology**
two children from the same family as different from one another as **pairs of** **children selected randomly** in the population
49
What explains **personality differences**
1. **Genetic influence** explains **40% of individual variations** in personality trait
2. A **shared environment explains 0 to 1%** of personality differences
3. **Peer influences explain** the **majority** of personality differences
50
Why do **cultures differ**
human adaptability
51
Common **norms for friendships** (Micheal Argyle & Monika Henderson)
1. Respect friends **privacy**
2. Make **eye contact** while talking
3. Don't tell other **secrets**
4. Most **value traits**
* Honesty
* Fairness
* Kindness
* Judgment
* Curiosity
52
People describe others with two and five universal personality dimensions
5 universal dimensions of social beliefs
1. Social complexity
2. The reward for application - hard working
3. Spirituality
4. Fate control
5. Cynicism - lower life satisfaction
53
**Universally cultures** see **women and men** as
* **women** as **caregiver** **givers**
* **men** as **physical**
54
**Women vs. men** typically described as
**Women** based on **physical appearance**
**men** on **professional topics**
55
The **majority** of the world view on **male and female roles**
men and women should **both work**
56
Culture reinforces
**gender roles** that originate with **biological demands**
57
**Similarities** across **cultures** might represent
**male social power** rather than **evolved differences**
58
Behavioral changes accompanied
shift of attitudes towards gender roles
59
**Societies** with **more gender equality**
**less** likely to **engage in war**
## Footnote
**less violent**
60
Similarities between men and women
1. 45 unisex **chromosomes**
2. Physical traits
3. Developmental milestones during infancy
4. Psychological traits
61
Differences between men and women
1. **Physically** Females have
* 70% more fat
* 40% less muscle
* 5 inches shorter
* 40 pounds less
2. Females **more sensitive to smell and sound**
3. Females **twice as likely to experience anxiety disorders or depression**
4. Males are **slower to enter puberty** but **quicker to die**
5. Males are three times **more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD**
6. Males are four times **more likely to commit suicide**
7. Males are five times **more likely to be killed by lightning**
8. Males more **capable of wiggling ears**
62
Women describe themselves in
* **relational terms**
* welcome help
* experience relationship linked emotions
* attuned to others relationships
63
Girls and play
Girls talk **more intimately** and play **less aggressively**
64
Empathy
The vicarious experience of another’s feelings; **putting oneself in another’s shoes.**
65
Precarious Manhood
man's **greatest social power**.
66
Aggression
**Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone**. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another’s feelings.
67
Interact
A relationship in which the **effect of one factor** (such as biology) **depends on another factor** (such as environment).
68
**Biological factors operate** within
a **cultural contacts** and **builds on a biological foundation**
69
Cultural norms affect
our attitudes and behaviors
70
**Sexual fantasies** difference between **men and women**
Men =
women **unattached and lust-driven**
Women =
male **emotionally consumed by devoted passion for women**
71
Cultures everywhere attribute
**greater** value to **female than male sexuality**
72
Gay men tend to
report **more interest** in **uncommitted sex compared to lesbians**
73
**Men** expressed more **desire** for
unrestricted sex
74
**Aggression** in men and women
1. **Men** typically are **more physically aggressive**
2. When **provoked** men women **equally aggressive**
3. **Women** more likely to **commit indirect aggression**
75
**Precarious Manhood** makes men
feel the **need to prove their masculinity**
76
Men versus women leaders
* **Women**
* excel
* relational or transformational leadership
* **Men**
* direct
* task-focused leaders
77
People perceive leaders as having
more culturally masculine traits
78
Gender differences **shrinking** in **industrialized** societies **due** to
**women** assume **more managerial** and **leadership positions**
79
In **most** societies **men** are
more **socially dominant**
80
People tend to **rate men**
as more **dominant, driven,** and **aggressive**
81
**Women** are more skilled at **expressing emotions**
nonverbally
82
**Women report friendships** with women to be
more **intimate**, **enjoyable**, and **nurturing**
83
Girls vs boys on empathy
**Girls** react with **more empathy**
84
Women vs men smiling
**Women smile more** than men
85
Family relations
**Women bind families**
buy 3x more gifts and cards
86
vocation and gender role
1. **Women** more interested in **jobs dealing with people men** in jobs with **things**
2. **Women** less **interested in math-intensive careers**
3. **Men** like **jobs that enhance inequalities**
87
**Western culture** would describe **social influence** as \_\_\_\_\_\_, while **Eastern culture** would describe the same type of actions to fit into a group as \_\_\_\_\_\_.
conformity
communal sensitivity
88
In **Sherif's autokinetic experiment**, subjects described the distance that \_\_\_\_\_\_.
a pinpoint of light moved
89
After **330 volts the "learner"** in Milgram's experiment fell silent. Which **verbal prods** were **used** to keep the participant going?
* Please **continue**.
* You have **no other choice**; you must go on.
* The experiment **requires that you continue**.
90
Some **critics** argued that the **Milgram studies** were **unethical** because the participants were
**deceived** about the **experiment's purpose.**
91
Conformity
A **change in behavior or belief** is the **result of real** or imagined group **pressure**.
92
Acceptance
Conformity involves **both acting and believing** in accord with **social pressure.**
93
Compliance
Conformity involves **publicly acting in accord with an implied** or explicit request while **privately disagreeing**.
94
Obedience
A type of compliance involving **acting in accord with a direct order** or command.
95
Auto-kinetic Phenomenon
Self (auto) motion (kinetic). The **apparent movement of a stationary point** of light in the dark.
96
Mass hysteria
**Suggestibility** to problems that **spread throughout a large group** of people.
97
Two **forms of conformity**
1. Acceptance
2. Compliance
* Obedience
98
*Muzafer Sherif* wanted to
figure out **social formation** through **lab experimentation**
Found: People will **change answers depending on others**
99
*Robert Jacob* and *Donald Campbell* studied
transmission of **false belief**
Found: Our **views of reality** are made up of others
100
*Micheal Platow* found
we **presume funny** when laughing audience is **similar** to us
101
*Peter Totterdell* found
**“mood linkage”**
being around **happy people makes us happier**
102
*Tanya Chartrand* & *John Bargh* form of **social contagion**
**“Chameleon effect”**
mimicking someone else's behavior
103
Chameleon effect develops
in early childhood
104
*Rick van Baaren* found in regards to **mimicry**
mimicry helps people **look more helpful and likable**
105
The exception to the **imitation-fosters-fondness rule**
mimicking someone's **anger fosters dislike**
106
**Mass hysteria** can **lead** to
increase of **gun violence & suicides**
107
*Sherry Towers* found
**shootings** causing **at least four deaths** lead to **two week period of increased** gun violence
108
*Bert Hodges* & *Anne Geyer* found
**most** people tell the **truth even when others don’t**
109
Conformity patterns
* **Collectivist countries** more willing to conform
* **US 1970s to 1980s** more willing to conform than 1950s
* **Women** more than men
* Recently settled **frontier states less**
110
*Micheal Mosander* & *Oskar Eriksson* on **internet conformity**
**majority** conformed to an **incorrect answer**
111
**Criticism** of *Asch’s* experiment
**Lacked “mundane realism”**, no pressure from outside world
112
*Milligram’s* Obedience Studies
tested what happens when the **demands of authority clash with the demands of conscious**
113
Found people outside the experiment
self-estimates may reflect self-serving bias
114
*Jerry Burger* replication of *Milligram* study today **found**
**individualism** might have **reduced obedience**
115
4 mirror **well-documented psychological effects** of *milligrams* study
1. **Slippery slope** of small requests that escalate into larger ones
2. **Framing** of shock giving as a social norm for the situation
3. Opportunity to **deny responsibility**
4. Limited time to **reflect on a decision**
116
**Ethical issues** of *Milgram’s* studies
1. Participants were **deceived about** their **purpose**
2. Participants **not given informed consent**
3. Put participants through **unnecessary stress**
4. Participant **self-concepts** may have been **altered**
5. Debriefing **less extensive**
6. Participants **distress was greater** than he suggested
117
**Four factors** that determine **obedience**
1. **The victim’s emotional distance** - easier to do cruel acts when not close to or can't see other people
2. **Closeness and legitimacy of the authority** - when the person making command is physically close compliance increases if authority is perceived as legitimate
3. **If Institutional authority is respected** - authorities backed by institutions wield social power
4. **The liberating effects of group influence** - conformity can be constructive because it's easier to fight in a group than alone
118
**Difference** between **general and wartime conformity**
The **reality of war and genocide** goes **beyond conformity**
119
**Similarities** between *Asch* & *Milgram studies*
1. Show how compliance can take **precedence over moral sense**
2. Succeed in **pressuring people to go against their own consciousness**
3. **Sensitized us moral conflicts** in our own lives
4. **Affirm** two familiar **social psychological principles**
120
External influences override internal convictions attitudes
fail to determine behavior
121
External behaviors + internal disposition can
feed each other
122
Initial attitudes help
later behavior
123
Evil results from
social forces - **evil situation produces evil behavior**
124
**The drift towards evil** comes in
**small increments without conscious** intent to do evil
125
A **group** of more than **five**
increases conformity
126
*David Wilder* Group “**packaging**”
**agreement of independent small groups** make the position **more credible** than large groups
127
Cohesive
A **“we feeling”**; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction to one another.
128
Normative influence
Conformity is based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ expectations, often to **gain acceptance**.
129
Informational influence
Conformity occurring when **people accept evidence about reality** provided by other people.
130
Reactance
A **motive to protect** or restore **one’s sense of freedom**. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action.
131
It's **easier to stand up** for something if
you find someone else to **stand up with you**
132
Observing **someone else strain** from a group decision
even if **wrong encourages us to stray** from the group too
133
Minority opinion from **someone outside group** we identify with
**sways us less** than the same **minority opinion from someone within our group**
134
**Higher-status** people tend to have
more **impact** on **conformity**
135
People **conform more** when they must **respond**
**in** **front of others** rather than writing answers privately
136
A **prior commitment to a certain behavior** or belief
**increases** the likelihood that a **person will stick with that commitment**
137
*Morton Deutsch* and *Harold Gerard* are two **forms of social influence**
1. **Normative** influence
2. **Informational** influence
138
Groups often do what to non-conformers
reject them
139
The **normative** influence **works better** when
we see others before **rejected for the act we are about to do**
140
**Friends influence** experiences that
inform our **attitudes**
141
**Conformity** to **others opinions last**
no more than **3 days**
142
**Brain activity** when conforming to the **wrong answer**
region dedicated to **perception becomes active**
143
Brain activity when going **against the group**
region dedicated to **emotion becomes active**
144
In a **group**, people are **more conscious** of
**how** we **differ from others**
145
People **feel better** when they **see themselves as**
* **moderately unique** and act in ways that **assert their individuality**.
* Individuals **high in “need for uniqueness” conform least**
146
**People feel uncomfortable** when
they **appear to differ** from others or exactly like **everyone else**
Most **apparent** in **individualistic Western cultures**
147
**Personality** **traits** of people **more likely to conform**
1. People who value **getting along with others**
2. People who **follow social norms for neatness and punctuality**
148
**Personality traits** for people **less likely to conform**
1. People high in **openness to experience**
2. **Novelty seekers**
3. Students with a **strong belief in their own free well** and personal control
4. More **liberal views**
149
**Collectivist countries** have a
higher conformity rate
150
When did the **shift of conforming rates happen** in Western societies
**before 1950s high conformity** rate after 1950s low conformity rate
151
**US** views on **conformity**
* **Children** who conform = **less intelligent**
* **University** students **less conforming**
152
The **positive** side to **role-playing**
**People change themselves** or empathize with people whose **roles differ from their own**
153
What can **repair a relationship**
temporary conformity
154
**Social roles** involve a
**a certain degree of conformity** and conforming to expectations is an **important task when stepping into a new social role**
155
Individuals value
sense of freedom and self-efficacy
156
If we know **others are doing something** this makes us
want to do it too.
157
Central Route to persuasion
Occurs when **interested people focus on the arguments** and **respond with favorable thoughts**.
158
Peripheral Route to persuasion
Occurs when people are **influenced by incidental cues**, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
159
**Persuasion** occurs **via**
one of two routes
160
When **motivated and able to think** about an issue
**central route** to persuasion
161
When distracted, **uninvolved**, busy
**peripheral route** to persuasion
Easily understood, f**amiliar statements** **more persuasive** than a **novel statement**
162
Advertisers adapt ads to **spontaneous decisions** so use which route more
peripheral route
163
**Magazine prescriptions,** drug ads use which **route**
**central** - offer information
164
**Two routes of persuasions** were forerunners for
today's **dual processing model** of the human
165
The **ultimate goal** of **advertisers**
behavior change
166
*Petty* believed
Central route processing can lead to **more enduring changes than the peripheral route**
167
**Central route** appeals over the **years**
**dwindled** in recent years
168
**Ingredients** of **persuasion**
1. **Communicator**
2. The **message**
3. **How** the message is **communicated**
4. The **audience**
169
People are **more willing to agree** with statements **made by leaders**
in the **political party,** they **identify with**
170
Message + who says it
more persuasive
171
**Effect** of **credibility**
**diminishes after** a **month** or so
172
**Impact** of **not a credible person**
**may increase** over time **if** a **person remembers** the message **better than the reason it's discounted**
173
**How** to become an **authoritative “expert”**
1. **Say** things the **audience agrees with**
2. Seem **knowledgeable on the topic**
174
How to **control speaking style** to build **credibility**
1. Speaking **confidently and fluently**
2. **Balance** talking and listening
175
People are **more willing to listen** to a communicator that
they **trust**
176
In regards to **comments**, people are **more likely to believe**
**negative comments** than positive comments
177
**Trustworthiness is higher** if the audience believes
communicator is **not trying to persuade them**
**Start with information**, not arguments
178
Having **someone else convey** your **expertise**
builds credibility
179
**Source credibility** before and after **message**
* Before =
1. more **favorable thoughts** in response to the message
* After =
1. message generates **favorable thought**
2. high credibility strengthens our **confidence in our thinking**
3. strengthens the **persuasive impact of the message**
180
Attractiveness
Having **qualities** that **appeal to an audience**. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is **most persuasive on matters of subjective preference**.
181
Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
The **tendency** for people who have **first agreed to a small request** to comply **later** with a **larger request.**
182
**Humor** is used to
**distract** from **distrust**
183
Does **not improve persuasion**
direct eye contact
184
Our **attraction or liking the person increases** our
ability to think they're **credible person**
185
Attractiveness forms
1. Physical attractiveness
2. Similarities
186
What **matters most** when people are **making** **superficial judgments**
attractiveness + fame
187
People are **more responsive to rational appeals** (central route)
1. Well **educated** or **analytical** people
2. Audiences that have **time and motivation to think through the issu**e
188
When **initial attitudes formed through peripheral route** more persuaded by
peripheral route later
189
Megumi hears a **political ad on the radio** and **initially disagrees** with it. However, after **time has passed**, she **remembers the message but not her first reaction**. She **decides that she agrees** with the message now. This **delayed persuasion** over time is called
The sleeper effect
190
Effects of **good feeling on message**
becomes **more persuasive**
191
**Why** does **good feeling affect** the **message**
**enhances positive thinking + linking good feeling** with message
192
**Unhappy** people
**less** easily **swayed by weak arguments**
193
Products **associated with humor**
**liked** more and **chosen** more
194
**More frightened and vulnerable** people feel
more they respond
195
**Fears work** best if the message
1. Leads people to fear
2. Perceive a solution
3. Feel capable of implementing
196
Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
The tendency for people who have **first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.**
197
Door-in-the-Face technique
A **strategy for gaining a concession**. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request.
198
Primacy effect
Other things being equal, the **information presented first usually has the most influence**.
199
Recency effect
Information **presented last sometimes has the most influence**. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.
200
Channel
The **way the message is delivered**—whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.
201
**Context of your message** and what makes a **big difference in how persuasive** it is
**context** a message and what **immediately precedes it**
202
**Lowball technique works** even when
we are **aware of a profit motive**
203
Acknowledging the **opposite arguments pros and cons**
* Cons =
* **Confuse** the **audience**
* **Weaken** the **case**
* Pros =
* Seem **fair**
* Be more disarming if it **recognizes the opposite arguments**
204
If the **audience** will be **exposed to opposing views**
offer a **two-sided appeal**
205
**Early information colors interpretation** of
**later** information
206
**Forgetting** **creates** a **recency effect** when
1. When **enough time separates the two messages**
2. When the **audience commits itself soon after the second message**
207
Best **advice for persuasion**
1. **Use logic or emotion** depending on the audience and message
2. Ask for a **small favor before** making a big request
3. Offer **two-sided messages** that challenge arguments against your message
4. **Go first or last** - not in the middle - for best results
208
**Appeals** that are **passive**
written
visual appeals
209
Mere **repetition and rhyming** can make things
1. believable
2. Increase fluency
3. Credibility
210
**More** **familiar** people are **with** an **issue**
**less persuadable** they are
211
Two-step flow of communication
The process by which **media influence often occurs** through opinion **leaders, who in turn influence others.**
212
Life cycle explanation
attitude **change as people grow older**
213
Generational explanation
older people largely **hold onto attitudes they adopt when younger** because attitudes are different from those being adopted by young people today a generational gap develops
214
Active experiences strengthened
attitudes
215
**Persuasion studies found** major influence on us is
connections with people
216
*Elihu Katz* found
many of media affects **operating two-step flow of communication**
217
**Opinion leaders** are
individuals **perceived as experts**
218
The **two-step flow model** shows **media influences penetrate**
**culture** in subtle ways
219
**More life-like** the media medium
**more persuasive** it's the message
1. Live (face-to-face)
2. Videotaped
3. Written
220
Messages **best comprehended** and **recalled** when
written
221
**Communication flows** from
adults to children
222
Best **not to make a big deal out** of something to
get a child to do it
223
People **social and political attitudes correlate** with
their age
224
Two possible **explanations for age differences:**
1. **Lifecycle** explanation
2. **Generational** explanation - evidence stronger
225
**crucial period** for **formation of attitudes and values**
adolescent and early adult
226
Circumstances that **breed counterargument**
When you know someone is **trying to persuade you**
227
Need for cognition
The **motivation to think and analyze**. Assessed by agreement with items such as “The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me” and disagreement with items such as “I only think as hard as I have to.”
228
Attitude inoculation
Exposing people to **weak attacks upon their attitudes** so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.
229
Counter arguments
Reasons why a persuasive **message might be wrong**.
230
Poison parasite defense
combines a **poison** (Strong counterargument) **with a parasite** (similarities to an opponents’ ads)
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What **disarms counter arguing**
**distractions** that keep people from thinking about counterarguments
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**Analytical people** are high in
need for cognition
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People **low in need for cognition** tend to
**quick** to respond to **peripheral cues**
234
Ways to **stimulate peoples thinking**
1. Using **rhetorical questions**
2. Presenting **multiple speakers**
3. Making people **feel responsible for evaluating the message**
4. **Repeating** the message
5. Getting people’s **undistracted attention**
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Stimulating thinking makes
1. **strong** messages **more persuasive**
2. **weak** messages **less persuasive**
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To **understand an assertion** is too
**believe** it - at least temporarily
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Wait for **inoculation to occur**
leading people to **consider counterarguments**
238
Ways to **bring forth counterarguments**
“Poison parasite” defense
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**Teens** are more likely to **eat healthy food if**
framed as a rebellion
240
Attitude inoculation helps
counter growth of fake news
241
Anti-smoking and drug education programs **persuasion principles**
1. Inoculation procedures
2. **Use attractive peers** to communicate information
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**Countries** that **restrict advertising that targets children**
1. Belgian
2. Denmark
3. Greeks
4. Ireland
5. Italy
6. Sweden
243
Children especially under the age of **eight years old ads**
* **Trouble** distinguishing **commercials from programs**
* Fail to grasp **persuasive intent**
* Trust **television advertising rather indiscriminately**
* **Badger parents** for advertisement products
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Seven and eight-year-old children who **play advert games more likely to**
choose food higher and sugar and fat
245
Inner-city seventh-graders able to **think critically about ads**
have **medium resistance skills**
better resist peer pressure
246
**Implications** of **Attitude Inoculation**
**Paradoxically** - one way to strengthen existing attitude is to challenge them although the challenge may not be as strong as to overwhelm them
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*William McGuire* was a **pioneer** in the field of
attitude inoculation
248
Which of the following are examples of circumstances that **increase self-awareness**, thus **decreasing the likelihood of deindividuation**?
* Mirror
* Name tags
* Camera
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Group
**Two or more** people who, for **longer than a few moments**, interact with and **influence one another** and **perceive one another as “us.”**
250
Co-actors
Co-participants **working individually on a non-competitive activity.**
251
Social facilitation
1. **Original** meaning: the **tendency of people to perform simple** or well-learned tasks better when others are present.
2. **Current** meaning: the **strengthening of dominant** (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others.
252
*Marvin Shaw* thought **all groups** have what in **common**
members interact
253
Different groups meet
different human needs
* To achieve
* To gain a social identity
* To affiliate
254
**Effects** of others **mere presence**
1. Social loafing
2. Deindividualization
3. Facilitation
255
**Social influence** in **interacting** groups
1. Group polarization
2. Groupthink
3. Minority influence
256
**Social arousal facilitation allowed** for people to
* Better **tune simple motor tasks**
* **Hinder** performance of **difficult tasks**
257
How **home team advantages**
* Officiating bias
* Travel Fatigue
* Familiarity with the home context
* Home-team crowd noise disruption
258
Evaluation Apprehension
**Concern** for how **others** are **evaluating us.**
259
Social Loafing
The tendency for people to exert **less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal** than when they are individually accountable.
260
**Larger audiences interfere** with
**well** **learn automated** behaviors and **difficult ones**
261
Being in a **crowd intensifies**
positive and negative reactions
262
When **others are close by**
feel emotionally closer
263
**Crowding** similar effect to being **observed by a crowd**
enhances **arousal** that **facilitates dominant responses**
264
*Nickolas Cottrell* found
presence of **blindfolded people** **didn’t boost performers** well-practiced responses
265
**Enhancement of dominant responses** is
**strongest** when people think they are **being evaluated**
266
*Glenn Sanders, Robert Baron, & Danny Moore* believed **arousal comes from**
**the conflict** between **paying attention to others** and **paying attention to the tasks**
267
*Zajonoc* believed **arousal** comes **from**
**the mere presence of others** even **without evaluation apprehension or arousing distraction**
268
**Social facilitation occurs** when
people **work toward individual goals** and **efforts can be individually evaluated**
269
*Max Ringelmann* found
the collective effort of **tug-of-war teams** was **half the sum of individual efforts**
270
When **five others believed** to take part inactivity
you **lessen** your effort by **1/3**
271
Social facilitation and evaluation concerns
Being **observed** = **increases** evaluation concerns
**Lost** in crowd = **decreases** evaluation concerns
272
Strategy to **motivate group members**
make **individual performances identifiable**
273
Free-Ride
People who **benefit from the group but give little in return.**
274
Deindividuated
**Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension;**
occurs in group situations that **foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad**.
275
Workplace social loafing
employees **produce more** when **individual performance posted**
276
Non-communists **collective cultures and social loafing**
* **Less social loafing** than western societies
* **Women less** social loafing
277
People may **slack off at efforts that are**
* not individually monitored
* rewarded
278
One goal is **compelling and maximum output** from everyone is essential
**team spirit** maintains an **intensified effort**
279
People in groups **loaf less when**
* task is
1. Challenging
2. Appealing
3. Involving
* Members are
1. Friends
2. Feel identified with
3. Indispensable to their group
280
Social **facilitation** vs social **loafing** **experiments**
Social facilitation = groups arouse people
Social loafing = Groups can defuse responsibility
281
Unrestricted behaviors commonality
* Provoked by the power of being in a group
* Group can generate a sense of excitement
282
Larger group size (**everyone is doing it**) people can
**attribute behavior to the situation** rather than their own choices
283
Self-awareness
A self-conscious state in which **attention focuses on oneself**. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions.
284
Group polarization
**Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies**; a strengthening of the members’ average tendency, not a split within the group.
285
