Exam 2 review

Question 1

What is an exogenous substance?

Answer 1

substances from external sources (such as drugs and food)

Question 2

What are endogenous substances?

Answer 2

substances from internal sources (such as neurotransmitters and hormones)

Question 3

What does an agonistic drug do?

Answer 3

An agonistic drug mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by activating the receptor.

Question 4

What does an antagonistic drug do?

Answer 4

An agonistic drug occupies the receptors without activating them, which blocks incoming neurotransmitters from binding to the receptor.

Question 5

Define a “psychoactive drug”.

Answer 5

A psychoactive drug is a substance that has a psychological effect, such as pain relief or hallucinations.

Question 6

What does a stimulant drug do?

Answer 6

Stimulants are involved in arousal, increased alertness, and elevated mood. Examples include cocaine, caffeine, and methamphetamine.

Question 7

What does a depressant drug do?

Answer 7

A depressant usually sedates, and provides hypnotic and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects. One example of a depressant includes barbiturates.

Question 8

What effects do opiates have on the body?

Answer 8

Opiates provide hypnotic, analgesic (pain-relieving), and euphoric effects. Examples include morphine and morphine-derivatives (heroin, etc).

Question 9

What do psychedelic drugs do?

Answer 9

Psychedelic drugs cause perceptual distortions. Examples include LSD, PCP (angel dust), etc.

Question 10

Where is the mesolimbicortical dopaminergic system located?

Answer 10

The MDS begins in the midbrain (at the mesencephalon) and projects to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex.

Question 11

Define “dependence”.

Answer 11

Dependence is the desire to self-administer a drug of abuse; criteria include patterns of consumption, craving, time and energy expended on obtaining the drug, as well as the impact of the drug on one’s life.

Question 12

How is “substance abuse” different from “dependence”?

Answer 12

Dependence is a more severe disorder than substance abuse, which is a pattern of drug abuse that does not meet the criteria for dependence.

Question 13

Define “reward-blocking medications” and explain how they work to treat addiction.

Answer 13

Reward-blocking medications interfere with the dopamine reward system, and include medications that block positive reward effects of the abused drug, but may produce a lack of all pleasurable feelings.

One example of a reward-blocking medication is Baclofen, which reduces dopamine activity in the ventral tegmental area of the brain.

Question 14

How are “aversive treatments” effective in treating addiction?

Answer 14

Aversive treatments cause a negative reaction when the person takes the drug.

One example of an aversive treatment drug is Antabuse, which interferes with alcohol metabolism, which in turn makes the abuser ill when alcohol is consumed.

Question 15

How do “anti-drug vaccines” help to treat addiction?

Answer 15

Anti-drug vaccines are synthetic molecules that resemble the drug but have been modified to stimulate the animal’s immune system to make antibodies that will degrade the drug.

Question 16

What class of psychoactive drugs are derived from the opium poppy?

Answer 16

Opiates.

Question 17

Opiate drugs are effective as psychoactive substances because they mimic ____________ in the brain.

Answer 17

Endorphins.

Question 18

Opium contains _____________, which is an effective analgesic (pain-reliever).

Answer 18

Morphine.

Question 19

Heroin is a ________-derivative.

Answer 19

Morphine.

Question 20

LSD (acid) strongly activates _________ receptors in the visual cortex, which in turn causes perceptual distortions.

Answer 20

Serotonin

Question 21

Another name for ecstasy is ______, which is derived from amphetamine.

Answer 21

MDMA

Question 22

Phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine (“Special K”) are both NMDA-type __________ receptor agonists.

Answer 22

Glutamate

Question 23

Marijuana is the dried and crushed flowers of what Indian hemp plant?

Answer 23

Cannabis sativa

Question 24

What is the major psychoactive ingredient in marijuana?

Answer 24

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); THC binds with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.

Question 25

The ventral tegmental area is suggested to be involved in addiction, while the _______________ area produces signs of withdrawal.

Answer 25

Periventricular grey area.

Question 26

Define "motivation", in regard to the regulation of internal states.

Answer 26

Motivation refers to the set of factors that initiate, sustain, and direct behaviours.

Question 27

What is an "instinct"?

Answer 27

An instinct is a complex behaviour that is automatic and unlearned, and occurs in all members of a species, such as a material behaviour. One example of an instinct is migration.

Question 28

___________ theory states that people behave in a way that keeps them at their level of physiological arousal.

Answer 28

Arousal theory.

Question 29

___________ theory states that the body maintains homeostasis in its systems. Departure from homeostasis produces an aroused condition, impelling the individual to engage in appropriate action.

Answer 29

Drive theory.

Question 30

Some simple drives include ___________ drives (those that maintain bodily conditions around a set point), and ___________ regulation (which involves the dilation or constriction of blood vessels, metabolism adjustment, and sweating).

Answer 30

1) Homeostatic drives. | 2) Temperature regulation.

Question 31

__________ is a feeding behaviour that provides energy for fuel and for maintaining body __________, as well as material needed for growth and ___________.

Answer 31

1) Hunger 2) Temperature 3) Repair

Question 32

What is "sensory-specific satiety"? Bonus: Where does sensory-specific satiety take place in the brain?

Answer 32

Sensory-specific satiety means that the more a particular food an individual eats, the less appealing the food becomes. This helps to force the body into eating a varied and nutritional diet. Bonus: Sensory-specific satiety takes place in the NST (nucleus of the solitary tract).

Question 33

What is the heritability rate for obesity in the United States of America?

Answer 33

50-90%

Question 34

What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR)?

Answer 34

The BMR is the energy required to fuel the brain and body and maintain body temperature. It accounts for 75% of the energy expenditure in the average sedentary person.

Question 35

What is the homeostatic "set point"?

Answer 35

the set point is the point of equilibrium the system returns to, such as energy reserves, body temperature, and fluid levels.

Question 36

Studies using fMRI results show that elevated _______ levels after a period of fasting produce changes in the human hypothalamus.

Answer 36

Glucose.

Question 37

What part(s) of the brain initiates eating and hunger?

Answer 37

The lateral hypothalamus and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) initiates eating.

Question 38

Glucose deficits trigger _______ hunger, while a deficit in fatty acids triggers ________ hunger (which originates in the liver).

Answer 38

1) Glucoprivic | 2) Lipoprivic

Question 39

Ghrelin is produced in the ________.

Answer 39

Stomach..

Question 40

The nucleus of the solitary tract (NST) takes the appetite signals and communicates this information to the ________________ in the hypothalamus.

Answer 40

Arcuate nucleus.

Question 41

The arcuate nucleus sends neurones to the lateral hypothalamus and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN); these neurones release ____________ and ___________.

Answer 41

1) Neuropeptide-Y | 2) Agouti-related protein (AgRP)

Question 42

What part of the hypothalamus is responsible for the termination of eating?

Answer 42

The ventromedial hypothalamus.

Question 43

Stretch or volume receptors in the ________ signal meal size, which helps to signal the end of a meal.

Answer 43

Stomach.

Question 44

The stomach and intestines release peptides to signal the end of a meal. One of these peptide is cholecystokinin (CCK), which stimulates the __________; the signal then travels to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST) and from there to the __________ to decrease eating.

Answer 44

1) Vagus nerve | 2) Hypothalamus

Question 45

Long-term control of appetite is essential; one hormone released by the intestines is PYY (peptide YY3-36), which is carried by the bloodstream to the _____________, where it inhibits neuropeptide-Y (NPY)-releasing neurones.

Answer 45

Arcuate nucleus.

Question 46

_____ cells release leptin.

Answer 46

Fat cells.

Question 47

Leptin and insulin both inhibit hunger-inducing hormone __________.

Answer 47

Agouti-related protein (AgRP), which is involved in the initiation of eating and hunger.

Question 48

Often in dieting, the body will "defend" its weight by shifting __________.

Answer 48

Metabolism.

Question 49

The standard treatment for obesity is _____________.

Answer 49

Dietary restriction.

Question 50

Other methods for treating obesity include medication and _____________ surgery.

Answer 50

Gastric bypass.

Question 51

In a patient who has been treated for obesity through gastric bypass surgery, weight loss averages ___% in 10 years, though most often patients relapse within _____ year(s).

Answer 51

1) 25% | 2) One

Question 52

Sex is like a hunger and thirst in many ways; it involves arousal and __________, hormonal __________, and is controlled by specific areas of the brain.

Answer 52

1) Satiation | 2) Control

Question 53

Sex is different from hunger and thirst in that it does not fit the pattern of a _______________ need, thus, sex is not required for survival.

Answer 53

Homeostatic tissue.

Question 54

The MPOA (_____________) is important in sexual performance.

Answer 54

Medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus

Question 55

The medial amygdala in the temporal lobe is involved in sexual behaviour, ___________, and emotion.

Answer 55

Aggression.

Question 56

For females, the VMH (______________) experiences increased activity during copulation, and sends axons to the periaqueductal grey in the midbrain, which projects to other brain regions. This is important for receptivity to male advances.

Answer 56

Ventromedial hypothalamus.

Question 57

In males, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) is important for sexual __________, while the __________ (located in the medial preoptic area [MPOA]) helps to sustain erection response.

Answer 57

1) Performance | 2) Sexually dimorphic nucleus

Question 58

Neurotransmitters involved in sexual behaviour include ________ (for motivation and male performance) and _________ (helps in ejaculation and the refractory period)

Answer 58

1) Dopamine | 2) Serotonin

Question 59

What is the Coolidge Effect?

Answer 59

The Coolidge Effect refers to the faster resumption of mating behaviour, with a different partner.

Question 60

Peaks in oestrogen and _________ during a woman's menstrual cycle often lead to more sexual advances in females.

Answer 60

Testosterone.

Question 61

Two important neuropeptides important for bonding are _________ (in women) and __________ (in men).

Answer 61

1) Oxytocin | 2) Vasopressin

Question 62

Airborne chemicals released by an animal that have physiological or behavioural effects on another animal of the same species.

Answer 62

Pheromones

Question 63

Most pheromones are detected by the ____________ (VNO), which is a cluster of receptors located in the nasal cavity.

Answer 63

Vomeronasal organ.

Question 64

True or false: women prefer the odours of men who smell similar to them.

Answer 64

False

Question 65

Define "emotion".

Answer 65

Emotion is an increase or decrease in physiological activity that is accompanied by feelings that are characteristic of the emotion, and are often accompanied by a characteristic behaviour or facial expression.

Question 66

The __________ nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight".

Answer 66

Sympathetic.

Question 67

Following arousal, the _________ nervous system reduces activity and conserves bodily energy.

Answer 67

Parasympathetic.

Question 68

According to the _____________ Theory, emotional experience results from the physiological arousal that precedes it; thus, different emotions are the result of different patters of arousal. Ex. "I feel afraid because I tremble" (stimulus) ––> autonomic arousal ––> fear (conscious feeling)

Answer 68

James–Lange Theory

Question 69

Schachter and Singer's cognitive theory on emotion states that ___________ arousal contributes only to the emotion's ___________. Ex. "I label my trembling because I appraise the situation as dangerous." (stimulus) ––> autonomic arousal ––> appraisal ––> fear (conscious feeling).

Answer 69

1) Physiological | 2) Intensity

Question 70

A stimulus is more _______ when making a sad face.

Answer 70

Painful.

Question 71

Cartoons are rated as more amusing during induced _______.

Answer 71

Smiling.

Question 72

What type of neurones respond both when a human engages in a specific act and while observing the same act in others?

Answer 72

Mirror neurones.

Question 73

One way humans contribute to emotional apathy is through the _______ of others' emotional expressions.

Answer 73

Mimicking.

Question 74

The limbic system is a network of systems arranged around the ____________ (in the midbrain).

Answer 74

Upper brain stem.

Question 75

Emotion is seated at the limbic system and the ________.

Answer 75

Hypothalamus.

Question 76

What brain structure is involved in negative emotions such as anger and fear?

Answer 76

The amygdala.

Question 77

One important structure in emotion is the ___________, which is part of the cingulate gyrus.

Answer 77

Anterior cingulate cortex.

Question 78

What brain structure is necessary for making judgements about behaviour and its consequences?

Answer 78

The prefrontal cortex.

Question 79

________ is a condition in the environment that makes unusual demands on the organism, such as a threat, failure or bereavement.

Answer 79

Stress.

Question 80

The stress response includes activation of the __________ branch of the autonomic nervous system, which is largely under the control of the hypothalamus.

Answer 80

Sympathetic.

Question 81

A group of structures that help thee body cope with stress.

Answer 81

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Question 82

The hypothalamus activates the pituitary glands to release stress hormones __________, ___________, and ____________.

Answer 82

1) Epinephrine 2) Norepinephrine 3) Cortisol

Question 83

What health condition is caused by excessive stress and sympathetic activity that sends the heart into fibrillation, to the point where little or no blood is pumped?

Answer 83

Sudden cardiac death.

Question 84

Which personality type is more prone to coronary heart disease: type A or type B?

Answer 84

Personality type A.