Exam 2 Study Guide Flashcards
(197 cards)
1
Q
Asch’s conformity study
A
Solomon Asch gathered participants in a room and asked them to choose the longest line. When most of the room gave the wrong answer, an individual who knew the correct answer still went with the majority to avoid alienation.
2
Q
Conformity
A
Adjusting our behavior or thinking to reflect a group standard
3
Q
When are we most likely to conform
A
- When we feel insecure or incompetent
- Are in a group with at least three other people
- Are in a group in which everyone else agrees
- Admire the group’s status or attractiveness
- Have not made a prior commitment to any response
- Know that others will observe our behavior
- Are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards
4
Q
When are we least likely to conform?
A
When another person dissents
5
Q
Attitudes
A
Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Attitudes affect our behavior
6
Q
Attribution Theory
A
We can attribute an individual’s behavior to their stable, enduring traits (dispositional attribution) or we can attribute it to the situation (situational attribution)
7
Q
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
A
The theory that we behave to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
When we become aware that our attitudes and actions clash we can reduce the dissonance by changing our attitude.
8
Q
Deindividuation
A
The loss of self awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
The loss of self awareness and restraint in a group setting that is intense and you have anonymity.
9
Q
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
A
You can’t always get someone to act drastically against what they believe, but by using small actions you can gradually get them to move in the direction of what they would generally oppose.
10
Q
When are we more/less likely to make the fundamental attribution error?
A
More likely: When a stranger behaves badly.
When judging the actions of an officer through body cam and not dash cam.
Less likely: When we are explaining the behavior of people we’ve seen in different context.
When explaining our own behavior
11
Q
Fundamental Attribution Error
A
The tendency we have to observe people’s behavior and underestimate the situation while overestimating the impact of their personal disposition
12
Q
Group polarization
A
When a group’s pre-existing thoughts/opinions are amplified because they are in a group that supports their perspective.
13
Q
Social loafing
A
Diminished effort when a task is assigned to a group instead of an individual.
When people act as a part of a group and feel less accountable, view their individual contributions as dispensable, overestimate their own contributions, and free rife on other’s efforts
14
Q
Social Facilitation
A
When performing a task we know well in front of people we perform better. When performing a task we find difficult we tend to do worse.
15
Q
Milgram’s Obedience Study
A
A study where a person posed as a teacher and asked participants to send a “slight shock” to an individual strapped to a chair. The majority of participants continued to the end even if it was deadly voltage.
16
Q
Informational social influence
A
example: reading a review
when we allow someone’s opinion about reality to influence us.
17
Q
Social norms
A
the understood rules for accepted and expected behaviors
18
Q
When were people most likely to obey Milgram’s instructions?
A
When the person giving the orders was close at hand and considered an legitimate authority figure
A powerful or prestigious institutions supported the authority figure
the victim was depersonalized or at a distance
There were no role models for defiance
19
Q
Mood linkage
A
The sharing of moods.
Happy when around happy people.
Depressed when around depressed people
20
Q
Normative social influence
A
Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
21
Q
Peripheral Route Persuasion
A
When people are persuaded/influenced by attention getting images or cues.
example: advertisement for vaccines that uses photos of sick children instead of facts
22
Q
Central route persuasion
A
A more thoughtful and less superficial means to persuade that relies on evidence and arguments not imagery
23
Q
Absolute threshold
A
The minimum energy required to detect a particular stimulus 50% of a time.
example: in a hearing test, whatever decimal is heard 50% of the time is the absolute threshold.
24
Q
Difference threshold/just noticeable difference
A
The minimum stimulus difference a person can detect 50% of the time.
“Loud is loud, what’s the difference”
example: volume from 40 we may be able to tell a slight difference but if it’s on 110 we won’t be able to tell a difference at all.
25
Accomodation (Vision)
the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
26
Afterimage Effect
If a person with color vision stares at a green shape for a while and then looks at a white sheet of paper they will see green's opposite color which is red.
27
Binocular Cue
The ability for people with two eyes to perceive depth.
A depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes
28
Retinal disparity
the difference in the images seen by each eye when looking at an object
The greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object is .
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Convergence
the way your eyes move together and point inward when you look at nearby objects
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Brightness Constancy
If we have typical vision, we perceive an object as having a constant brightness even as its illumination varies
31
Feature detectors
nerve cells in the occipital lobe's visual cortex that respond to a scene's specific visual features -
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Color constancy
A consistent perception of color produces color constancy, but as perception changes the color may change as well.
33
Figure-ground
The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.
34
Gestalt
The way we integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole
35
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetics and the influence of environment on behavior
36
Positive Psychology
Studies the building of a "good life" that engages our skills
37
Critical Thinking
Evaluates the source of information, looks for biases, examines assumptions, reviews evidence and assesses conclusions
38
Gender Psychology
studies the differences between genders
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Clinical Psychology
focuses on assessing and treating people with mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders
40
Cross-Cultural Psychology
studying people from different cultures around the world and determining where we have differences and similarities
41
Epigenetic Marks
The molecules that trigger or block gene expression
42
Heritability
the extent to which the difference between individuals can be contributed to differing genes.
43
Peer influence
Children receive their beliefs from their parents, but their culture from their peers.
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Temperament
Our genetically influenced intensity and reactivity to emotions
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Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe that we could have predicted an event after we've already experienced it.
46
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the "independent variable" is the factor that the researcher actively manipulates or changes to observe its effect on another variable
The variable whose effect is being studied.
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Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of the mind and behavior seen through the lens of natural selection.
48
The dependent variable
is the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
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Developmental Psychology
studies our changing abilities from the womb to the tomb
50
Social psychology
studies how we view and effect one another socially
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Cognitive Psychology
examines how we perceive
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Scientific Attitude
Curiosity, skepticism, and humility. We must be aware of our vulnerability to error and be open to new perspectives
53
Attachment Theory
An emotional tie with others. In parenting, a child who is securely attached experiences anxiety when their parent isn't present, but can be soothed upon return. Avoidant and anxious are considered insecure attachment.
54
Four Stages of Piaget's Development Theory
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, concrete Operational, and Formal Operational
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Imprinting
Animals who create strong bonds with the first person they receive contact and connection with regardless of species
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Infantile Amensia
Forgetting our early life before the age of 4.
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Authoritarian Parenting
Coercive - do what I say
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Permissive Parenting
unrestraining - do what you want
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Neglectful Parenting
uninvolved -
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Authoritative
confrontive - sets rules, but promotes conversation
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Sensimotor
1st stage of Piaget's theory that has object permanence as key element
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Concrete Operation Stage
3rd stage of Piaget's developmental theory. Here children are grasping conservation
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Preoperational Stage
2nd stage of Piaget's developmental theory. Here children are egocentric and indulge in pretend play
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Formal Operation
4th stage of Piaget's Developmental theory where abstract thinking and logic is possible
65
Canon Byrd Theory of Emotion
Our bodily responses and emotions happen separately but simultaneously
66
Mere Exposure Effect
The more we are exposed to a person or thing the more we like them
67
Spillover Effect
Emotional rousal spills over from one event to the next
68
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
Emotions have two ingredients (physical arousal and cognitive appraisal)
69
Companionate Love (7 Types of Love)
Commitment & Intimacy
70
Accommodation
Expanding our schemas to incorporate new information
71
Assimilation
Organizing new experiences into existing schemas
72
Attachment
An emotional tie with others
73
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
the use of psychology in the workplace to understand the best way to train and motivate people, culture, designs, and systems
74
Biological Psychology
Exploring the links between body and mind
75
Counseling Psychology
help people cope with challenges and crises. Helps people with disorders improve their personal and social functioning.
76
Personality Psychology
investigating our consistent traits
77
Psychology
a science that seeks to answer questions about how and why we think, feel, and act the way that we do
78
Grouping
Identified by gestalt psychologists. It's the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
79
Grouping Principle: Proximity
We group nearby figures together
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Grouping Principle: Continuity
We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
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Grouping Principle: Closure
We fill in gaps to create a complete whole object.
82
Monocular Cues
A depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, is available to either eye alone.
83
Opponent-Process Theory
Color vision depends on three sets of opposing retinal processes: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black
84
The Eye's Blind SPot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
85
Cornea
Where light enters the eye and bends light to help provide focus
86
Pupil
Light passes through the pupil - a small adjustable opening
87
Iris
A colored muscle that dilates or constricts in response to light intensity
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Lens
After passing through the pupil, light hits the transparent lens in our eye and it focuses the light rays into an image on our retina
89
Retina
the multilayered tissue lining the bac inner surface of the eyeball
90
Fovea
The central focal point in the retina around which the eye's cones cluster
91
Optic Nerve
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
92
Perception
The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.
93
Perceptual Set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
94
Prosopagnosia
a cognitive disorder of face perception in which the ability to recognize familiar faces, including one's own face, is impaired
95
Relative Luminance
The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
96
Rods/Cones
Located in the very bac of the eye, the nearly 130 million buried photoreceptor cells
97
Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
98
Sensory adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. When heavy perfume becomes normalized
99
Shape Constancy
Those with typical vision perceive the form of familiar objects such as the door
100
Signal detection theory
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
101
Size Constancy
Those with typical vision perceive an object as having an unchanging size, even while its distance from it varies. We perceive a bus as large enough to hold people even if we see it from a far distance
102
Subliminal Stimulation
Stimuli you cannot consciously detect 50% of the time
103
Subliminal Priming
Activating unconscious associations
104
Phi Phenomenon
An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent light blink on and off in quick succession?
105
Top-down processing
You interpret what your senses detect
106
Bottom-up processing
Enables your sensory systems to detect the lines, angles, and colors that form the images.
107
Transduction
The process of converting one form of energy into another that our brain can use
108
Weber's law
For an average person to perceive a difference two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
109
Young - Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
The theory is that the retina contains three different types of color receptors.
One most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue, which when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
110
Bandura's Bobo Doll study
A child was in a room with an adult who showed aggressive behavior towards a bobo doll. When the child was taken to a different room and given frustrating news the child showed even more aggressive behavior towards the bobo doll than the adult demonstrated.
111
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
112
Biological predispositions
an inborn ability
113
Classical conditioning
we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
114
Cognitive learning
We acquire mental information that guides our behavior by observing events, watching others, or through language
115
Cognitive Map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
116
Cognitive Processes
thoughts, perceptions, and expectations
117
Discrimination
When an organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced
Punishment teaches discrimination among situations
118
violence-viewing effect
That violence viewed on television went unpunished, did not show the victim's pain, involved "justified" violence, and had an attractive perpetrator.
119
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditional stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. When a response is no longer reinforced.
120
Generalization
In classical conditioning once a response has been conditioned, similar stimuli, may elicit a similar response.
121
higher-order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
122
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
123
Mirror Neurons
Some scientists believe frontal lobe neurons fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
124
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
125
Observational Learning
learning by observing others
126
Operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding on punishing consequences
127
Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
128
Ivan Pavlov
Responsible for discovery of classical conditioning. Used dogs and a bell to condition dogs.
Russian psychologist's early twentieth century experiments - now psychology's most famous research.
129
Positive Punishment
Punishment by adding an unpleasant stimulus
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Negative Punishment
punishing by taking away a rewarding stimulus
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Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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Reinforcement schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
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Fixed ratio schedules
reinforce behavior after a set number of responses
134
Variable ratio schedules
provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses
high rates of of responding
135
Fixed interval schedules
reinforce a response after a fixed time period
choppy stop-start pattern rather than a steady rate
136
variable interval schedules
reinforce the first response after varying time intervals.
Produce slow steady responding
137
Partial intermittent reinforcement schedules
responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not. Like slot machines in Vegas
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Primary Reinforcers
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
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Conditioned (secondary) Reinforcers
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
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Immediate Reinforcer
Immediate feedback produces immediate learning
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Delayed Reinforcer
Learning to control our impulses to earn more valued future rewards reduces the likelihood of committing impulsive crimes
142
Respondent Behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
143
Unconditioned response
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned Response
in classical conditioning a learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus
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Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
146
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period or a weakened conditioned response
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Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
148
Neutral Stimuli
In classical conditioning a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
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Conditioned Stimulus
An originally neutral stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response
150
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response
151
Automatic Processing
Things we know without actively thinking about them.
Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.
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Taste aversion
When rats were sickened after sampling a new food, they avoided it thereafter.
153
Processing site for explicit memories
The hippocampus and frontal lobes
154
Processing site for implicit memories
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
155
Basal Ganglia
Deep brain structures involved in motor movement facilitate the formation of our procedural memories for skills
156
Chunking
Organizing new items into familiar, manageable units often occurs automatically.
We all remember information best when we can organize it into personally meaningful arrangements
157
Shallow-processing
Encoding on an elementary level, such as word's letters, or at a more intermediate level, a word's sound.
158
Deep-processing
encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words.
158
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
facts and experiences that we can consciously now and declare
158
Encoding
When new information enters our memory system
158
Encoding Failure
When a memory fails to make it from short term into long term memory.
159
Memory Construction Errors
Memories are constructed. We don't just retrieve memories, we reweave them. When we replay a memory we often replace the original with a slightly modified version.
160
Reconsolidation
A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.
161
Mnemoics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
162
Mood Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall events and experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
163
Procedural Memory
Implicit memories for automatic skills such as how to ride a bike and classically conditioned associations among stimuli
164
Rehearsal
Overlearning of verbal information that increases retention
165
Retrieval
the process of recovering stored information by accessing the memory trace through an effective retrieval cue
166
Retrieval Failure
A type of forgetting that occurs when information that has been previously encoded and stored in long-term memory cannot be accessed or retrieved when needed
167
Retrieval Cue
When you encode a target piece of information into memory, you associate with it other bits of information about your surroundings that help with retrieval.
168
Self-reference effect
the tendency to remember self-relevant information
169
Sensory Memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
170
Echoic Memory
fleeting memory for auditory stimuli
171
Iconic Memory
A fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli
172
Serial Position Effect
Explains why we may have large holes in our memory of recent events.
Our tendency to recall the best, the last, and first items in a list
173
Encoding-Specificity Principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.
In a new setting you may miss the memory cues needed for speedy face recognition
174
Explicit memory
The facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare
175
Flashbulb memory
When we create mental snapshots of exciting or shocking events.
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event like a first kiss.
176
Hierarchies
When a few broad concepts are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
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Implicit Memory
Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
178
Proactive Interference
Occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information.
A new code on your phone may not be as east to retrieve because the old code is so embedded
179
Retroactive Interference
When new learning disrupts your recall of old information
New lyrics to an old tune may make you forget the old tune
180
Long term memory
The relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system
181
Memory consolidation
The neural storage of a long time memory. Located in the cortex.
182
Short-term memory
Briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten. Like a telephone number
183
Working Memory
Active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory
Where short-term memory combines with long-term memory.
184
Recall
Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
185
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
186
Relearning
learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time.
187
Three measures of memory
recall, recognition, relearning
188
The Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
189
The Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice
190
Misinformation Effect
After exposure to subtly misleading information, we may confidently misremember what we've seen or heard
191
Source Amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
192
Storage Decay
how information stored in the brain gradually fades away.
193
State-dependent memory
what we learn in on state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state
194
Memory Storage Process
Encoding in the hippocampus
storage
(pre-frontal cortex for short term memory and neocortex for long term memories)
retrieval
