Exam 2 Study Guide Flashcards
1
Q
elementism
A
the belief that complex mental or behavioral processes are composed of or derived from simple elements and that t best way to understand these processes is first to find the elements of which they are composed.
2
Q
gestalt psychology
A
school of thought that believes all objects and scenes can be observed in their simplest forms. Sometimes referred to as the late of simplicity, the theory proposes that the whole of an object or scene is more important than its individual parts.
3
Q
Three founders of gestalt
A
max wertheimer
kurt koffka
Wolfgang kohler
4
Q
max wertheimer
A
german psychologist had an idea that our perception ar structured in ways that sensory stimulation is not. that is, our perceptions are different from the sensations that comprise them.
5
Q
kurt koffka
A
in 1922, he wrote an article about perception and how it relates to gestalt.
gestalts were interested in learning about thinking, perception, development, learning, and much more.
for him, the geographical environment is the physical environment, whereas the behavioral environment is our subjective interpretation of the geographical environment
Our own subjective reality governs our actions more than the physical environment does.
6
Q
wolgang kohler (1887-1967)
A
he saw flaws in IQ tests and in what exactly they measure.
emphasized the processes that influence the tests achievements.
studied learning in chimpanzees and chickens, and how that is tied into the
7
Q
phi phenomenon
A
illusion that light is moving from one location to another
8
Q
perceptual constancy
A
the way we respond to objects as if they were the same, even though the stimulus themselves might be varied greatly
9
Q
figure ground relationship
A
division of the perceptual field into two parts (the figure that is being attended to, and the ground, which is diffuse, and is everything not being attended to)
10
Q
principle of continuity
A
the tendency to experience stimuli that follow some predictable pattern as a perceptual unit
11
Q
principle of proximity
A
the tendency to perceptually group together stimuli that are physically close
12
Q
principle of similarity
A
tendency to perceive as units stimuli that are physically similar to one another
13
Q
principle of closure
A
the tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete
14
Q
gestalt explanation of learning
A
there is a problem, disequilibrium, and then a motivation to solve the problem and equilibrium
15
Q
detour problem
A
animal could see its goal but could not reach it directly
16
Q
insightful learning
A
learning that involved perceiving a solution to a problem after a period of cognitive trial and error
17
Q
productive thinking
A
insight based reasoning, understanding solutions rather than memorizing
wertheimer believed that solving a problem is an intrinsic reinforcement
reaching an understanding involves many aspects of learners
18
Q
german and british traditions in psychology
A
the german tradition went from rationalism with Spinoza and Leibniz to physiology
the british tradition was empiricism, which transferred to evolutionary theory with darwin and malthus
19
Q
why were Bessel’s discoveries important?
A
Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846), who speculated that the error had not been due to incompetence but to individual differences among observers. Bessel set out to compare his observations with those of his colleagues and indeed found systematic differences among them. This was the first reaction-time study, and it was used to correct differences among observers.
he showed that there were differences between individuals in reaction time studies, which made it clear that these were not incompetencies.
20
Q
Bell-Magendie Law
A
There are two types of nerves: sensory nerves carrying impulses from the sense receptors to the brain and motor nerves carrying impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands of the body.
After Bell and Magendie, it was no longer possible to think of nerves as general conveyers of vibrations or spirits. Now a “law of forward direction” governed the nervous system.
clearly sensation and movement involves the brain.
21
Q
Charles Bell (1774–1842)
A
British physiologist, Discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves.
Operating on rabbits, Bell demonstrated that sensory nerves enter the posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal cord and the motor nerves emerge from the anterior (ventral) roots. Bell’s discovery separated nerve physiology into the study of sensory and motor functions—that is, into a study of sensation and movement. Bell’s finding was significant because it demonstrated that specific mental functions are mediated by different anatomical structures.
22
Q
François Magendie (1783–1855)
A
French physiologist, discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves.
23
Q
doctrine of specific nerve energies
A
Each sensory nerve, no matter how it is stimulated, releases an energy specific to that nerve.
24
Q
Johannes Muller (1801-1858)
A
german physiologist. Expanded the Bell–Magendie law by demonstrating that each sense receptor, when stimulated, releases an energy specific to that particular receptor. This finding is called the doctrine of specific nerve energies.
Following Bell’s suggestion, Müller demonstrated that there are different types of sensory nerves, each containing a characteristic energy, and that when they are stimulated, a characteristic sensation results. In other words, each nerve responds in its own way no matter how it is stimulated. For example, stimulating the eye with light waves, electricity, pressure, or by a blow to the head will all cause visual sensations.
25
adequate stimulation
Stimulation to which a sense modality is maximally sensitive.
26
legacy of muller
The most significant implication of Müller’s doctrine for psychology was that the nature of the central nervous system, not the nature of the physical stimulus, determines our sensations. Müller’s findings underscored that we are never conscious of objects in the physical world but of various sensory impulses in the brain linked to those real objects. It follows then that our knowledge of the physical world must be limited to the types of sense receptors we possess.
An ardent Kantian, Müller believed that he had found the physiological equivalent of Kant’s categories of thought. According to Kant, sensory information is transformed by the innate categories of thought before it is experienced consciously. For Müller, the nervous system is the intermediary between physical objects and consciousness. Kant’s nativism stressed mental categories, whereas Müller’s stressed physiological mechanisms. In both cases, sensory information is modified, and therefore, what we experience consciously is different from what is physically present.
27
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894)
A monumental figure in the history of science who did pioneer work in the areas of nerve conduction, sensation, perception, color vision, and audition.
28
vitalism vs materialism
Although Helmholtz accepted many of Müller’s conclusions, the two men still had basic disagreements, one of them over Müller’s belief in vitalism. In biology and physiology, the vitalism-materialism problem was much like the mind–body problem in philosophy. The vitalists maintained that life could not be explained by the interactions of physical and chemical processes alone. For the vitalists, life was more than a physical process and could not be reduced to such a process. Furthermore, because it was not physical, the “life force” was forever beyond the scope of scientific analysis. Müller was a vitalist. Conversely, the materialists saw nothing mysterious about life and assumed that it could be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes. Therefore, there was no reason to exclude the study of life or of anything else from the realm of science. Helmholtz sided with the materialists, who believed that the same laws apply to living and nonliving things, as well as to mental and nonmental events. So strongly did Helmholtz and several of his fellow students believe in materialism that they signed the following oath (some say in their own blood):
29
principle of conservation of energy
The energy within a system is constant; therefore, it cannot be added to or subtracted from but only transformed from one form to another.
30
Helmholtz' research on nerve conduction
To measure the rate, Helmholtz isolated the nerve fiber leading to a frog’s leg muscle. He then stimulated the nerve fiber at various distances from the muscle and noted how long it took the muscle to respond. He found that the muscular response followed more quickly when the motor nerve was stimulated closer to the muscle than when it was stimulated farther away from the muscle.
He found that reaction time was slower when the toe was stimulated than when the thigh was stimulated; he concluded, again by subtraction, that the rate of nerve conduction in humans was between 165 and 330 feet per second (50.3–100.6 meters per second). This aspect of Helmholtz’s research was significant because it showed that nerve impulses are indeed measurable—and, in fact, they are relatively slow.
31
helmholtz on sensation and perception
Although he believed that the physiological apparatus of the body provides the mechanisms for sensation, Helmholtz thought that the past experience of the observer is what converts a sensation into a perception.
Sensations, then, are the raw elements of conscious experience, and perceptions are sensations after they are given meaning by one’s past experiences.
32
unconscious inference (Helmholtz)
According to Helmholtz, the process by which the remnants of past experience are added to sensations, thereby converting them into perceptions.
Helmholtz and Kant agreed on one important point: The perceiver transforms what the senses provide. For Kant this transformation was accomplished when sensory information was structured by the innate faculties of the mind. For Helmholtz, the transformation occurred when sensory information was embellished by an individual’s past experience.
33
Young–Helmholtz theory of color vision
Separate receptor systems on the retina are responsive to each of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue–violet. Also called the trichromatic theory.
34
resonance place theory of auditory perception
The tiny fibers on the basilar membrane of the inner ear are stimulated by different frequencies of sound. The shorter the fiber, the higher the frequency to which it responds.
35
contributions of helmholtz
Although Helmholtz was an empiricist in his explanations of sensation and perception, he did reflect the German Zeitgeist by postulating an active mind. According to Helmholtz, the mind’s task was to create a reasonably accurate conception of reality from the various “signs” that it receives from the body’s sensory systems. Helmholtz assumed that a dynamic relationship exists among volition, sensation, and reflection as the mind attempts to create a functional view of external reality. Helmholtz’s view of the mind differed from that of most of the British empiricists and French sensationalists because they saw the mind as largely passive. For Helmholtz the mind’s job was to construct a workable conception of reality given the incomplete and perhaps distorted information furnished by the senses (Turner, 1977).
36
psychophysics
psychological perceptions in response to physical attributes of a stimulus
37
Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) (faculty psychology)
Believed that the strengths of mental faculties varied from person to person and that they could be determined by examining the bumps and depressions on a person’s skull. Such an examination came to be called phrenology. (See also Phrenology.)
38
phrenology
The examination of the bumps and depressions on the skull in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of various mental faculties.
39
formal discipline
The belief that the faculties of the mind can be strengthened by practicing the functions associated with them. Thus, one supposedly can become better at reasoning by studying mathematics or logic.
40
Pierre Flourens (1794–1867)
Concluded that the cortical region of the brain acts as a whole and is not divided into a number of faculties, as the phrenologists had maintained.
When he examined the entire brain, Flourens concluded that there is some localization, but that contrary to what the phrenologists believed, the cortical hemispheres function as a unit. Seeking further evidence of the brain’s interrelatedness, Flourens observed that animals sometimes regained functions that they had lost following ablation. Thus, at least some parts of the brain had the capacity to take over the function for other parts.
41
Paul Broca (1824–1880)
Found evidence that part of the left frontal lobe of the cortex is specialized for speech production or articulation.
brocas area was The speech area on the left frontal lobe side of the cortex (the inferior frontal gyros).
studying phineas gage, Broca figured out that certain parts of the brain and their lack of functioning contributes to some known disorders (his patient who could intelligently communicate, but couldn't talk, and the legion on his brain)
42
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878)
Using the two-point threshold and the just noticeable difference, he was the first to demonstrate systematic relationships between stimulation and sensation.
Weber was a physiologist who was interested in the senses of touch and kinesthesis (muscle sense)
43
two-point threshold (Weber)
The smallest distance between two points of stimulation at which the two points are experienced as two points rather than one.
44
just noticeable difference (jnd)
The sensation that results if a change in stimulus intensity exceeds the differential threshold. (See also Differential threshold.)
45
Weber - Judgments Are Relative, Not Absolute
During his research on kinesthesis, Weber made the startling observation that the jnd is a constant fraction of the standard weight. For lifted weights, that fraction is 1/40; for nonlifted weights, it is 1/30. Using lifted weights as an example, if the standard weight is 40 grams, the variable weight would have to be 41 grams to be judged heavier or 39 grams to be judged lighter than the standard. If the standard weight is 160 grams, the variable weight would have to be 164 grams or 156 grams to be judged heavier or lighter, respectively, than the standard. Weber then aligned himself with the large number of scientists and philosophers who found that there was not a simple one-to-one correspondence between what is present physically and what is experienced psychologically
46
Weber's law
Just noticeable differences correspond to a constant proportion of a standard stimulus
This was the first statement of a systematic relationship between physical stimulation and a psychological experience. But because Weber was a physiologist, psychology was not his primary concern. It was Fechner who realized the implications of Weber’s work for psychology and who saw in it the possible resolution of the mind–body problem.
47
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887)
Expanded Weber’s law by showing that, for just noticeable differences to vary arithmetically, the magnitude of a stimulus must vary geometrically.
Around 1840, Fechner had a “nervous breakdown,” resigned his position at Leipzig, and became a recluse. Additionally, Fechner had been almost blinded, presumably while looking at the sun through colored glasses during his research on afterimages. At this time, Fechner entered a state of severe depression that was to last several years and that resulted in his interests turning from physics to philosophy.
48
panpsychism
The belief that everything in the universe experiences consciousness.
49
absolute threshold
The smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected by an organism.
50
negative sensations
According to Fechner, sensations that occur below the absolute threshold and are, therefore, below the level of awareness.
51
differential threshold
The amount that stimulation needs to change before a difference in that stimulation can be detected.
52
Fechner's law
physical stimulus must change geometrically for us to notice an arithmetic change. It is not a 1:1 correspondence.
53
Fechner's legacy
psychology is possible, experimental, and quantitative
54
3 methods of psychophysics
method of limits, method of adjustment, and method of constant stimuli
55
method of limits
A stimulus is presented at varying intensities along with a standard (constant) stimulus to determine the range of intensities judged to be the same as the standard.
56
method of constant stimuli
A stimulus is presented at different intensities along with a standard stimulus, and the observer reports if it appears to be greater than, less than, or equal to the standard.
57
method of adjustment
An observer adjusts a variable stimulus until it appears to be equal to a standard stimulus.
58
school
A group of scientists who share common assumptions, goals, problems, and methods.
59
voluntarism
The name given to Wundt’s school of psychology because of his belief that, through the process of apperception, individuals could direct their attention toward whatever they wished.
scientific study of human consciousness, sensation, perception, reaction time, attention, feeling, and association
strongly influenced by rationalism and Leibniz
anti materialist
60
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920)
The founder of experimental psychology as a separate discipline and of the school of voluntarism.
Wundt’s goal was not only to understand consciousness as it is experienced but also to understand the mental laws that govern the dynamics of consciousness. Of utmost importance to Wundt was the concept of will as it was reflected in attention and volition.
produced around 53,000 pages of research over his lifetime.
huge on active role of attention
61
what firsts came with Wundt
experimental psychology
experimental psychology journal
experimental psychology textbook
first experimental psychology research lab in 1879 in university of Leizpig
62
psychology first school
Voluntarism, then, was psychology’s first school—not structuralism, as is often claimed. Structuralism is the name used by Edward Titchener, one of Wundt’s students (discussed later), for his program in the United States.
63
wundt's psychology goals
Wundt disagreed with individuals like Galileo, Comte, and Kant who claimed that psychology could never be a science; and he disagreed with Herbart, who said that psychology could be a mathematical science but not an experimental one.
He believed that experimentation could be used to study the basic processes of the mind but could not be used to study the higher mental events. For the latter, only various forms of naturalistic observation could be used.
For Wundt the subject matter of psychology was to be human consciousness as it occurred.
Once the mental elements were isolated, the laws governing their combination into more complex experiences could be determined. As such, Wundt set two major goals for his experimental psychology:
(1) to discover the basic elements of thought and
(2) to discover the laws by which mental elements combine into more complex mental experiences.
64
introspection
Reflection on one’s subjective experience, whether such reflection is directed toward the detection of the presence or absence of a sensation (as in the case of Wundt and Titchener) or toward the detection of complex thought processes (as in the cases of Brentano, Stumpf, Külpe, Husserl, and others).
65
sensation
A basic mental experience that is triggered by an environmental stimulus. can be described in terms of modality and intensity
66
feelings
The basic elements of emotion that accompany each sensation. Wundt believed that emotions consist of various combinations of elemental feelings. (See also Tridimensional theory of feeling.)
67
perception (passive)
Mental experience that occurs when sensations are given meaning by the memory of past experiences.
According to Wundt, perception is a passive process governed by the physical stimulation present, the anatomical makeup of the individual, and the individual’s past experiences. These three influences interact and determine an individual’s perceptual field at any given time.
68
apperception (active)
Attention and apperception go hand in hand; what is attended to is apperceived. Unlike perception, which is passive and automatic, apperception is active and voluntary. In other words, apperception is under the individual’s control. It was primarily because Wundt believed so strongly that individuals could direct their attention by exercising their will that he referred to his approach to psychology as voluntarism.
active and directed by the will - engages in creative synthesis (complex thinking in arranging and rearranging mental elements)
the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses.
69
creative synthesis
The arrangement and rearrangement of mental elements that can result from apperception
We have already seen that Wundt believed humans can willfully arrange the elements of thought into any number of configurations (creative synthesis).
70
Franciscus Cornelius Donders (1818–1889)
dutch physiologist, Used reaction time to measure the time it took to perform various mental acts.
71
mental chronometry
The measurement of the time required to perform various mental acts.
72
was Wundt a Determinist?
yes. he did not believe in free will.
That is, he did not believe in free will. Behind all volitional acts were mental laws that acted on the contents of consciousness. These laws were unconscious, complex, and not knowable through either introspection or other forms of experimentation; but laws they were, and their products were lawful. According to Wundt, the laws of mental activity can be deduced only after the fact, and in that sense the psychologist studying them is like a historian:
73
pure introspection
relatively unstructured self-observation
74
experimental introspection
scientifically respectable, reporting internal perception, much like psycho-physicists.
75
did wundt have a very comprehensive view of psychology?
NO. and he trained many of the American psychologist that were going to start things up in the US
76
Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927)
Created the school of structuralism. Unlike Wundt’s voluntarism, structuralism was much more in the tradition of empiricism-associationism.
Titchener, accepting the positivism of Ernst Mach, believed that speculation concerning unobservable events has no place in science.
77
titchner view of psychology and goals
must be scientific by using observation to study conscious experience, consciousness, and the mind.
psychology was about experience (currently)
goals of psychology
- discover the basic elements of experience
- to find out how to combine these elements
78
consciousness
the total of mental experience at any given moment. mental processes occurring now, includes only present mental processes
79
mind
accumulated experience over a lifetime
80
how could you observe conscious experience?
introspection with highly trained introspectors
the analytical task of the psychologist is to break Consciousness down into its simplest its basic, raw, elemental components, from which complex experience is built
81
components of consciousness
sensations (elements of perceptions), images (the elements of ideas), and affections (the elements of emotions) (all of which are attributes)
82
how to describe consciousness in its simplest terms
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quality (color, pitch)
intensity (loud)
duration (length)
clearness (attention)
extensity (amount of space)
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83
stimulus error
Letting past experience influence an introspective report.
To describe the object in common-sense terms of everyday language, instead of reporting the conscious content of the experience, is to commit this error. An "orange" is not an orange so far as introspective report is concerned, but the hues, brightness, and spatial characteristics of that stimulus object. Nor should a subject say he is afraid, for this is merely an interpretation; he must describe the conscious content if he is to avoid the stimulus error.
84
structuralism
The school of psychology founded by Titchener, the goal of which was to describe the structure of the mind.
What Titchener sought was a type of periodic table for mental elements, what chemists had developed for the physical elements. Once the basic elements were isolated, the laws governing their combination into more complex experiences could be determined.
85
what psychology is NOT according to titchner
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unconscious
children
applied
behavior
abnormal
animals
unobservable events
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wasn't concerned with anything that wasn't part of the immediate consciousness
If experience is the sole concern of psychology, then performance (behavior) is irrelevant. Behavior is worthy of study-as a branch of biology, not as psychology.
86
decline of structuralism
the approach to psychology through introspection seems to have closed with Titchener's death.
Verbal report and free association are still with us, but a unified, unsupplementedappeal to introspection has disappeared.
87
significance of structuralism
recognition of psychology as a science separate from philosophy and physiology
the introspective method was thoroughly tested
it provided strong set of ideas for new psychological movements to test and reject
88
American zeitgeist 1860 - 1890s
american higher education was founded on the british school model
1862 Morrill Act created public universities, broke away from the british model, large number of new universities, and competition for Ph.D's
As noted in the last chapter, Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Psychology was used as a text at Harvard in the 1880s. In 1886, John Dewey (discussed later) published Psychology, which described the new empirical science. Also in 1887 came the American Journal of Psychology, the first psychology journal in the United States, and in 1890 William James’s The Principles of Psychology was published. All these events marked the beginning of a psychology that was to emphasize individual differences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality—in other words, a psychology that was compatible with evolution.
89
functionalism
Under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment.
For the structuralist, the assumptions concerning the mind were derived from British and French empiricism, the goal was to understand the structure of the mind, and the primary research tool was introspection. For the functionalist, the assumptions concerning the mind were derived from evolutionary theory; the goal was to understand how the mind and behavior work in aiding an organism’s adjustment to the environment, and research tools included anything that was informative—be it introspection, the study of animal behavior, or the study of the mentally ill. In short, structuralism and functionalism were incommensurable.
practical applications - questions
use whatever methodology works, look at almost any subject population
90
prevailing attitude in the us
pragmatism - whatever works!
Zeitgeist was unfavorable toward titchner and structuralism
91
what was the basic question of functionalism?
how does an organism adapt to its environment?
92
1st psycholog labs in the US
harvard - william james
johns hopkins - Hall
university of Pennsylvania - cattell
93
william james 1842 - 1910
Was instrumental in the founding of functionalistic psychology. James emphasized the function of both consciousness and behavior. For him the only valid criterion for evaluating a theory, thought, or act is whether it works. In keeping with his pragmatism, he claimed that psychology needs to employ both scientific and nonscientific procedures. Similarly, on the individual level, sometimes one must believe in free will and at other times in determinism.
94
pragmatism
The belief that usefulness is the best criterion for determining the validity of an idea.
Everywhere in James’s writing is his belief in pragmatism. According to pragmatism, which is a cornerstone of functionalism, any belief, thought, or behavior must be judged by its consequences. Any belief that helps create a more effective and satisfying life is worth holding, whether such a belief is scientific or religious. Believing in free will was emotionally satisfying to James, so he believed in it. According to the pragmatic viewpoint, truth is not something “out there” in a static form waiting to be discovered, as many of the rationalists maintained. Instead, truth is something that must be gauged by effectiveness under changing circumstances. What works is true, and because circumstances change, truth must be forever dynamic.
95
Crisis of william james
After graduation, however, James’s health deteriorated further, and he became deeply depressed. Apparently, one reason for his depression was the implications of materialistic physiology and psychology that had so impressed him. It was clear to James that if the materialism was correct, it applied to him as well. This meant that anything that happened to him was beyond his control. His depression, for example, was a matter of fate, and it made no sense to attempt to do anything about it. James’s acceptance of Darwin’s theory of evolution exacerbated the problem. In Darwin’s view, there is variation, natural selection, and survival of the fittest; there is no freedom or choice.
96
1890 Principles of Psychology
massive book with two volumes that was massively influential on future generations of psychologists
1892 was the Brief Course (Jimmy)
97
stream of consciousness (James)
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Personal
Continuous; cannot be divided
Constantly changing
Selective
Functional
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Term for the way James thought the mind worked. James described the mind as consisting of an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts rather than static elements that could be isolated from one another, as the structuralists had suggested.
98
habits (James)
Patterns of behavior learned through repetition of activity
| Neurophysical explanation, very similar to Pavlov’s
99
emotions (James)
Perceptions cause bodily reaction that we then feel as emotions
What we feel depends on what we do
James-Lange theory of emotion
100
empirical self
According to James, the self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own. The empirical self consists of the material self (all of one’s material possessions), the social self (one’s self as known by others), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious).
101
self-esteem
According to James, how a person feels about himself or herself based on the ratio of successes to attempts. One can increase self-esteem either by accomplishing more or attempting less.
102
james' contributions to psychology
James helped incorporate evolutionary theory into psychology. By stressing what is useful, he represented a major departure from the pure psychology of both voluntarism and structuralism. For James, as well as for the functionalists who followed him, usefulness defined both truth and value. James expanded research techniques in psychology by not only accepting introspection but also encouraging any technique that promised to yield useful information about people. By studying all aspects of human existence—including behavior, cognition, emotions, volition, and even religious experience—James also expanded the subject matter of psychology. As we will see in Chapter 20, James’s eclectism is very much in accordance with postmodernism.
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Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916)
Stressed the application of psychological principles in such areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. In so doing, Münsterberg created applied psychology
William James had made psychology popular within the academic world, but Münsterberg helped make it popular with the general public by showing its practical uses. In addition, Münsterberg had among his personal friends some of the most influential people in the world, including Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft and the Nobel Prize–winning philosopher Bertrand Russell.
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applied psychology
Psychology that is useful in solving practical problems. The structuralists opposed such practicality, but Münsterberg and, later, the functionalists emphasized it.
105
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930)
Although satisfying all the requirements for a PhD at Harvard, she was denied the degree because she was a woman. In spite of such restrictions, Calkins made significant contributions to the study of verbal learning and memory and to self-psychology. Her many honors included being elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.
106
Granville Stanley Hall (1844–1924)
Created the first U.S. experimental psychology laboratory, founded and became the first president of the American Psychological Association, and invited Freud to Clark University to give a series of lectures. Hall thus helped psychoanalysis receive international recognition. Many of the beliefs contained in his two-volume book on adolescence are now considered incorrect. Nonetheless, that work is currently seen as an important pioneering effort in educational, child, and adolescent psychology and in parent education and child welfare programs.
107
recapitulation theory of development
every child repeats the evolutionary stages of human development in its own development
108
John Dewey (1859–1952)
A key person in the development of functionalism. Some mark the formal beginning of the school of functionalism with the 1896 publication of Dewey’s article “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology.”
109
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)
Transitional figure between functionalism and behaviorism
Marks the transition between the schools of functionalism and behaviorism. Thorndike concluded from his objective animal research that learning occurs gradually, occurs independent of consciousness, and is the same for all mammals. His final theory of learning was that practice alone has no effect on an association (neural bond) and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it.
from the puzzle box experiment, learning is incremental, learning does not involve thinking, and some principles of learning apply to all mammals.
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animal research before thorndike
Romanes: Explained animal behavior in human terms
Morgan: (Morgan’s Canon) Don’t use human terms to explain animal behavior if it’s not necessary
Washburn: Studied animal consciousness
Used controlled behavior to index mental events
111
conclusions of Thorndike
From his numerous puzzle-box experiments, Thorndike reached the following conclusions:
Learning is incremental. That is, it occurs a little bit at a time rather than all at once. With each successful escape, subsequent escapes were made more quickly.
Learning occurs automatically. That is, it is not mediated by thinking.
The same principles of learning apply to all mammals. That is, humans learn in the same manner as all other mammals.
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law of exercise
Thorndike’s contention that the strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association’s use. Thorndike discarded this law in 1929.
113
law of effect
Thorndike’s contention that reward strengthens associations, whereas punishment weakens them. Later, Thorndike revised the law to state that reward strengthens associations, but punishment has no effect on them.
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what happened to functionalism?
it blended into psychology as a whole
115
ivan pavlov 1849-1936
Shared Sechenov’s goal of creating a totally objective psychology. Pavlov focused his study on the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli that control behavior and on the physiological processes that they initiate. For Pavlov all human behavior is reflexive.
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Work on digestion:
Discovered conditioned reflex
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR
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extinction and spontaneous recovery
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Ivan sechenov
Sechenov strongly believed that the traditional approach to understanding psychological phenomena using introspective analysis had led nowhere. For Sechenov (1935/1973), the only valid approach to the study of psychology involves the objective methods of physiology:
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john b watson 1878 - 1958
The founder of behaviorism who established psychology’s goal as the prediction and control of behavior. In his final position, he denied the existence of mental events and concluded that instincts play no role in human behavior. On the mind–body problem, Watson finally became a physical monist, believing that thought is nothing but implicit muscle movement.
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watson's behaviorism
Emphasis on conditioned reflex, habit
Stimulus-Response (S-R) bonds
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Contiguity
Frequency
Recency
No place for consequences
Thought is subvocal speech
Emotions are reflexive reactions
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he believed the purpose of psychology was the prediction and control of behavior
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radical behaviorism
explanation of behavior is only in terms of observable events
physical monism (non-duality of being)
associationism
positivism
empiricism
epiphenomenalism - thoughts are just a byproduct of S-R processes
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mcdougall - purposive behavior
spontaneous, persistent, varied, becomes more festive with practice, terminates when goal is attained.
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methodological behaviorism
intervening variables allow for unobservable phenomena - thoughts, emotions, etc.
they must be tied to observable behavior
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logical positivism (observable and theoretical)
we have to accept that some things just aren't observable.
observable terms (empirical events)
theoretical terms (explain and unite observation)
unobservables are allowed IF they are tied to operational definitions
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neobehaviorism
logical positivism
theoretical terms operationally defined
nonhuman animals for subjects (better control over variables, and animals differ from humans only by degree)
learning is the primary mechanism of adaptation
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edward tolman (1886-1959)
rejects thorndike and watson's approach to behavior
molar levels of analysis, not molecular level
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hypothetico-deductive theory
A set of postulates from which empirical relationships are deduced (predicted). If the empirical relationships are as predicted, the theory gains strength; if not, the theory loses strength and must be revised or abandoned
first quantifiable theory of learning
highly testable, designed to be self-correcting.
S ---> intervening variabels ------> R
theory very popular into the 1960, but was ultimately a dead end
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BF Skinner 1904-1990
believed science should be descriptive and inductive
stay close to empirical observation and avoid theorizing
the job of science is to describe empirical relationships, not explain them
operant conditioning
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operant
freely-emitted behavior that influences the environment
behavior occurs, followed by a consequence, future chances of that behavior are determined by the consequences
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operant conditioning
environment selects behavior with reinforcement, punishment, extinction.
reinforcers increase the probability of the behaviors, and punishers decrease the probability
extinction is where the behavior has no consequence and drops out
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why do things look the way they do? Gestalt
sensory data could be being transformed by force fields
psychophysical isomorphism: The Gestaltists’ contention that the patterns of activity produced by the brain—rather than sensory experience as such—causes mental experience.
Law of pragnanz: Because of the tendencies of the force fields that occur in the brain, mental events will always tend to be organized, simple, and regular. According to the law of Prägnanz, cognitive experience will always reflect the essence of one’s experience instead of its disorganized, fragmented aspects.
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reproductive thinking
a result of repetition, structured, and practiced cognitions and habits
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productive thinking
results in new ideas and insights; based on understanding the nature of the problem
According to Wertheimer, the type of thinking that ponders principles rather than isolated facts and that aims at understanding the solutions to problems rather than memorizing a certain problemsolving strategy or logical rules.
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perceptual constancy
The tendency to respond to objects as being the same, even when we experience those objects under a wide variety of circumstances.
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the gestalt explanation of learning
As we have seen, the Gestaltists believed that brain activity tends toward a balance, or equilibrium, in accordance with the law of Prägnanz. This tendency toward equilibrium continues naturally unless it is somehow disrupted. According to the Gestaltists, the existence of a problem is one such disruptive influence. If a problem is confronted, a state of disequilibrium exists until the problem is solved. Because a state of disequilibrium is unnatural, it creates a tension with motivational properties that keeps the organism active until it solves the problem.
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quasi needs
According to Lewin, psychological rather than biological needs.
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Zeigarnik tasks
The tendency to remember uncompleted tasks longer than completed ones.
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kurt lewin - life space
According to Lewin, the totality of the psychological facts that exist in one’s awareness at any given moment. (See also Psychological fact.)
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kurt lewin
An early Gestaltist who sought to explain human behavior in terms of the totality of influences acting on people rather than in terms of the manifestation of inner essences. Lewin was mainly responsible for applying Gestalt principles to the topics of motivation and group dynamics.
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approach approach
According to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is attracted to two goals at the same time.
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avoidance avoidance
According to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is repelled by two goals at the same time.
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approach avoidance
According to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is attracted to and repelled by the same goal at the same time.
