1. Multicellular 2. Heterotrophic 3. No Cell Walls 4. Eukaryotic 5. Tissues Developed From Embryonic Layers

Exam 3 Flashcards by Avery Abercrombie

What is an animal?

Multicellular
Heterotrophic
No Cell Walls
Eukaryotic
Tissues Developed From Embryonic Layers

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What animals exhibit radial symmetry?

Cnidaria and many Ctenophora

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Diploblastic

Having only 2 germ layers

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Example of a diploblastic animal?

Cnidaria

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Triploblastic

Having 3 germ layers

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What is a protostome?

Mouth forms first

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What is a deuterostome?

Anus forms first, mouth forms second

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Developmental Stages:

Zygote, Blastula, Gastrula

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Covers the surface and becomes the outer covering and in some phyla the central nervous system

Ectoderm

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Is the innermost germ layer that lines the digestive tract and organs such as the lungs and liver in vertebrates

Endoderm

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Is the 3rd layers (forms between the other 2 layers) forms muscles and most other organs. Not all animals have this.

Mesoderm

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What Era?
242-251 MYA
Cambrian explosion
First fossils of arthropods, chordates, and echinoderms
Burgess Shale

Paleozoic Era

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What Era?
Dinosaurs and other mammals
Coral Reefs Formed
Small Mammals

Mesozoic Era

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What Era?
Diversity of mammals

Cenozoic Era

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Filer Feeders
Basal Animals
Choanocyte
Spongocoel
Hermaphroditic

Sponges

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Protostome
Triploblastic layer of tiny muscles around the ring of the bell
Small Nervous System
Poisonous

Cnidarians

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Classes of Cnidaria

Hydrozoans, Scyphozoans, Cubozoans, Anthozoans

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Phylum’s in Clade Lophotrochozoa

Platyhelminthes, Rotifera, Mollusca, Annelida

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What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Marine, Freshwater, and Terrestrial
Triploblastic Acoelomates
No Circulatory System
Hermaphrodites
Turbellarians, Monogeneans, and Trematodes
Key Animal - Flatworm

Platyhelminthes

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What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Freshwater, marine, and terrestrial
Alimentary Canal
Many reproduce by parthenogenesis
Includes class Bdelloidea

Rotifera

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What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Mostly marine
Secrete a hard shell - internal or external
Coelomates
3 main body parts: muscular foot, mantle, radula
Includes classes gastropoda, bivalvia, cephalopoda

Mollusca

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Tongue-like feeding organ

Radula

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Fold of tissue over visceral mass
Creates visceral cavity
Secretes the shell

Mantle

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Are organs that allow the organism to change colors by distorting the cytoplasmic sacculus, changing the translucency or reflectivity of the cell.

Chromatophores

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Are organs that allow bioluminescent light to shine from the organism.

Photophores

What phylum of Lophotrochozoa? Key animal - earthworm Coelomates Marine, Freshwater, and Terrestrial Includes Classes Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, Hirudinea

Annelida

Are ridge-like structures that are used in locomotion.

Parapodia

Phylums of Ecdysozoa (7)

Nematoda, Arthropoda, Cheliceriformes, Myriapoda, Hexapoda, Crustacea, Echinodermata

Characteristics of Arthropods

Cuticle, Sensory Organs, Open Circulatory System, Gas exchange, Segmented Body, Hard exoskeleton, Jointed Appendages, Cephalothorax

Used for sensing, feeding, or reproducing in arachnids

pedipalps

Millipeds and Centipedes

Myriapoda

Incomplete Metamorphosis

Young resemble the adults

Complete Metamorphosis

Young do not look like adults until maturity

Beetles

Coleoptera - Complete

Flies and Mosquitoes

Diptera - Complete

Ants, Bees, and Wasps

Hymenoptera - Complete

Grasshoppers, Crickets, Katydids

Orthoptera - Incomplete

Woodlice and Roly-poly's

Isopods

Lobsters, Crabs, and Shrimp

Decapods

Is a hardened cuticle on dorsal cephalothorax

Carapace

Krill and other species

Copepods

What phylum of Ecdysozoa? Deuterostomes Bilateral Sea stars, urchins, sea cucumbers Water Vascular System Sexual Reproduction

Echinodermata

Are the bilaterian animals that belong to Deuterostomia

Chordates

2 types of invertebrate deuterostomes

Urochordates, Cephalochordates

Derived Characters of Chordates: (4)

Notochord, Dorsal - hollow nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits, muscular post anal tail

Derived Characters of Craniates:

Neural Crest, heart with at least 2 chambers, kidneys, red blood cells with hemoglobin

A collection of cells near the dorsal margins of the closing neural tube in an embryo

Neural crest

Derived Characters of Vertebrates:

Enclosed spinal cord, elaborate skull, fin rays

Are vertebrates with jaws Enlarged forebrain associated with enhanced smell and vision In aquatic - the lateral line system which is sensitive to vibrations

Gnathostomes

Hagfish Least derived surviving craniate lineage Have cartilaginous skull and axial rod of cartilage derived from the notochord but lack jaws and vertebrate

Myxini

Eggs hatch outside of mother's body

Oviparous

The embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk

Ovoviviparous

Embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the mother's body

Viviparous

Includes sharks, rays, and skates Skeleton composed primarily of cartilage

Chondrichthyans

Includes bony fish and tetrapod's Have a bony skeleton Breathe by drawing water over gills Control buoyancy with swim bladder

Osteichthyes

Lobe-fins have muscular pelvic and pectoral fins 3 surviving lineages

Sarcopterygii

Derived Characters of Tetrapods

4 limbs and feet with digits, ears

Salamanders - which have tails

Caudata

Frogs and Toads - which lack tails

Anura

Caecilians - which are legless and resemble worms

Apoda

Are a group of tetrapod's whose living members are the reptiles

Amniotes

Wings with Keratin feathers Lack of a urinary bladder 4 chambered heart Endothermy Females have 1 ovary Small gonads Loss of teeth

Derived Characters of Birds

Derived Characters of Mammals: (4)

Mammary glands, Hair, larger brain, differentiated teeth

Small group of egg-laying mammals consisting of echidnas and platypus

Monotremes

Embryo develops within a placenta in the mother's uterus Completes its embryonic development while nursing in a maternal pouch Includes: opossums, kangaroos, and koalas

Marsupials

What phylum are humans in?

Eutherians

Derived Characters of Hominids:

Upright posture, bipedal, larger brains, language capabilities, symbolic thought, shortened jaw and digestive tract, manufacture and use of tools

Space between cells is filled with what

interstitial fluid

2 main body cavities

dorsal and ventral

2 parts of the thoracic cavity and where are they

Pericardial - heart, pleural - lungs

Abdominopelvic cavity and where is it located

Peritoneal cavity - coelomic space

4 main categories of tissue

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

3 shapes of epithelial tissue

cuboidal, columnar, squamous

3 arrangement types of epithelial tissue

simple, stratified, or pseudostratified

2 major types of connective tissue

loose and dense

What produces and secretes extracellular matrix?

Fibroblasts

3 protein fibers that strengthen loose connective tissues and how?

Collagen - supports tissue Elastin - makes tissue elastic Reticulin - helps support the network of collagen

Loose connective tissue that stores fat for insulation and fuel

Adipose

Where is dense connective tissue found and how do those work?

Tendons - attach muscles to bones Ligaments - connect bone to bone

Special Connective Tissue

Cartilage, Bone, Blood

Form the bone

Osteoblasts

Contain marrow which generates red and white blood cells

Vascular Bones

Allow for movement in animals? Name each type

Joints Ball and socket Hinge Gliding Combination

3 types of muscle tissue

Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac

Transmit nerve impulses

neurons

4 parts of neurons

cell body, dendrites, axon, neuroglial cells

Division of the nervous system

Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Brain and spinal Cord Integration and Interpretation of input

Central Nervous System

Nerves and ganglia Communication of signal to and from the CNS to the rest of the body

Peripheral Nervous System

Collections of cell bodies

Ganglia

Helps return a variable to either a normal range or a set point

Negative Feedback

Loops occur in animals, but do not usually contribute to homeostasis Enhance a change Do not maintain homeostasis Ex: blood clotting, Contractions in childbirth

Positive Feedback

Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss

Vasodilation

Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss

Vasoconstriction

Transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions Arrangements of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allow for this

Countercurrent exchange

What controls thermoregulation?

Hypothalamus

Generate heat by metabolism Birds and mammals More energetically expensive

Endothermic

Animals gain heat from external sources Most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles

Ectothermic

Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment through a process called

Acclimatization

A _______ allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes. Ex: snakes

Conformer

A __________ uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external environmental fluctuation. Ex: mammals

Regulator

Highly branched extensions Conduct electrical impulses toward the cell body

Dendrites

Part of a neuron that contains the nucleus

Cell Body

Single cytoplasmic extension Conducts impulses away from cell body

Axon

Also called neuroglia Help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

Neuroglial cells

Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for voluntary movement

skeletal

Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for involuntary body activities

Smooth

Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for contraction of the heart

Cardiac

Example of a ball and socket joint

hips

Example of Hinge Joints

Elbow

Example of Gliding Joints

Vertebral Projections

Example of Combination Joint

Human Jaws

Control hypoctoyl elongation Control stomatal opening Control phototropism

Blue-light photoreceptors

The relative lengths of night and day, is the environmental stimulus plants use most often to detect the time of year.

Photoperoid

In mollusca, the development of the visceral mass is rotated around so the anus is near the head.

Torsion

Tool that depicts relative response of a process to different wavelengths

Action Spectrum

Effect of light on plant morphology

Photomorphosis

Flower when light period is shorter than a critical threshold

Short-day plants

Reduce transpiration by closing stomata Slow leaf growth Reduced exposed surface area Growth of shallow roots is inhibited Deeper roots continue to grow

Plant's Response to Drought

Marks sunrise and sunset providing the biological clock with environmental cues

Phytochrome Conversion

3 classes of secondary chemicals

Nitrogen compounds, terpenoids, and phenolics

Cycles that are about 24 hours long and are governed by an "internal" clock. Can be entrained to exactly 24 hours by the day/night cycle

Circadian Rhythms

Provides the plant with information about the quality of light

Phytochrome system

Is a physiological response to photoperoid

Photoperiodism

2 classes of light receptors

Blue-light receptors and phytochromes

Can activate the expression of genes involved in plant defenses

Methyljasmoic Acid

Enzymatic destruction of root cortex cells creates air tubes that help plants survive oxygen deprivation during flooding

Plant's Response to Flooding

What can plant's detect from light?

Light direction, intensity, and wavelength

Specialized plastids containing dense starch grains

Statoliths

Refers to changes in form that results from mechanical disturbance

Thigmomorphogenesis

Response to gravity

gravitropism

What must happen for a bud to form a flower instead of a vegetative shoot?

Meristems identity genes must first be switched on

Flowering signal

Florigen

Are governed by whether the critical night lengths sets a maximum number of hours of darkness

Long-day plants

Shaded plants receive more?

Far red than red light

Flowering is controlled by plant maturity, not photoperoid

Day-neutral plants

Pigments that regulate many of a plant's responses to light throughout its life. Seed Germination Shade Avoidance

Phytochromes

Hormone Diseases

Gland hyposecretion Gland hypersecretion Tumor (benign or malignant)

What are hormone disease caused by?

Either overabundance or a limitation of a hormone

What hormone is involved with the pineal gland?

Melatonin

What hormone is involved with the pancreas gland?

Insulin/Glucagon

What hormone is involved with the Adrenal Medulla gland?

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

What hormone is involved with the Adrenal Cortex gland?

Glucocorticoids and Aldosterone

What hormone is involved with the parathyroid gland?

Parathyroid hormone

What hormone is involved with the thyroid gland?

Thyroxine, Triiodothyronine, and Calcitonin

What hormone is involved with the Anterior Pituitary gland?

Prolactin, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, MSH, Growth Hormone

What hormone is involved with the Posterior Pituitary gland?

Oxytocin, ADH

What type of hormones are insulin and glucagon and what do they do?

Antagonistic hormones and they help maintain glucose homeostasis

What is the names of the cluster of endocrine cells in the pancreas and what is their function?

Pancreatic islets / islets of Langerhans Function: Produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin

How does insulin reduce blood glucose levels? (3 main ways)

1. Promoting cellular uptake of glucose (most tissues except the brain) 2. Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver 3. Promoting fat storage

How does glucagon increase blood glucose levels? (2 main ways)

1. Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver 2. Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose

Is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells

Type 1 Diabetes mellitus (insulin dependent)

Involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors

Type 2 Diabetes mellitus (non-insulin dependent)

Possible Results of Diabetes (4)

1. Peripheral Neuropathy 2. Wounds 3. Infections 3. Nephropathy 4. Retinopathy

Hormone? Induces uterine contractions and the release of milk

Oxytocin

Hormone? Enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Insect Hormone? Molting hormone.

Ecdysone

Insect Hormone? Low levels result in metamorphosis.

Juvenile Hormone

Class of compounds Secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system Mediate flight or fight responses Includes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Catecholamines

Eat mainly autotrophs

Herbivores

Eat other animals

Carnivores

Regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter

Omnivores

Regularly consume dead organic matter

Detritivores

The breakdown of food particles outside of cells. All Eumetazoans.

Extracellular Digestion

Food particles are engulfed by endocytosis and digested within food vacuoles. Sponges and Single-celled species.

Intracellular Digestion

4 classes of essential nutrients

1. Essential Amino Acids 2. Essential Fatty Acids 3. Vitamins (some) 4. Minerals (all)

How many essential amino acids do animals and humans require?

Animals - 20 Humans - 9

What fatty acids must be obtained from diet?

Unsaturated fatty acids

2 categories of vitamins

1. Fat-soluble 2. Water-soluble

Where do both categories of vitamins go in the body?

Water-soluble are disposed of in the urine Fat-soluble are stored in the liver and fatty tissues

How many vitamins must humans consume in their diet?

Uptake of nutrients by body cells. Mainly occurs in the small intestine.

Absorption

The passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment. Occurs in the rectum and waste leaves through the anus.

Elimination

Where does digestion begin?

In the mouth

What is the first stage of digstion, mechanical or chemical?

Mechanical

Deliver saliva to lubricate food.

Salivary Glands

Enzyme that initiates breakdown of glucose polymers?

Salivary Amylase

Junction that opens to both the esophagus and trachea?

Pharynx

Rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal?

Peristalsis

Valves that regulate the movement of material between compartments

Sphincters

What does the stomach do and what does it convert food into?

Function: stores food and secretes gastric juice Converts to: acid chyme

What is gastric juice made up of?

Hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin

Function of pepsin?

Digests proteins

Function of mucus?

Protects the stomach lining from gastric juice

Function of parietal cells?

Secrete hydrogen and Chloride ions separately

Function of chief cells?

Secrete inactive pepsinogen

Function of the pancreas:

Produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin that are activated after entering the duodenum

Longest portion of the alimentary canal Major digestive organ Composed of duodenum, jejunum, and ilium Is longer in herbivores than carnivores Harder to digest vegetable matter

Small Intestine

Part of the large intestine that is connected to the small intestine?

Colon

Part of the large intestine that aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small and large intestines meet.

Cecum

All animals Responds immediately regardless of previous exposure Small set of receptors detect a large array of microbes Type of Immunity

Innate Immunity

Only in vertebrates Large set of receptors allow specific targeting of pathogens Type of Immunity

Adaptive/Acquired Immunity

Function of hemocytes in invertebrate innate immunity?

Are phagocytic cells that digest foreign bodies

In invertebrate innate immunity, what do hemocytes trigger the production of and what is its function?

Trigger antimicrobial peptides and they disrupt the plasma membranes of bacteria and fungi

Recognition protein activates the Toll protein on the surface of immune response cells. Signal transduction from Toll to the nucleus causes the synthesis of what?

Antimicrobial Peptides

What immunity responses do invertebrates not have?

Inflammatory response and natural killer cells

Barrier defense in vertebrates:

Skin, Mucus, Saliva, Tears, Lysozyme

Where are lysozymes found and what do they do?

Found in tears, saliva, and mucus Dissolve bacterial walls

Cellular Innate Defenses (5)

White Blood Cells, Neutrophils, Macrophages, Eosinophils, and Dendritic Cells

Function of neurtophils:

Engulf and destroy microbes

Macrophages:

Are part of the lymphatic system and are found throughout the body

Function of Eosinophils:

Discharge destructive enzymes

Function of Dendritic Cells:

Stimulate development of acquired immunity

What do mast cells and basophils release and what is its function?

Release histamine Promotes changes in blood vessels (vasodilation)

Function of prostaglandins:

Promote blood flow to areas

How do phagocytes migrate?

Through chemotaxis (following a chemical agent)

What is complement?

Group of protein lyses invading cells

Function of interferons:

Block cell-to cell transmission of viruses

Function of Natural Killer Cells:

Destroy body cells that are infected

A fluid rich in white blood cells, dead microbes, and cell debris, accumulates at the site of inflammation.

Pus

Function of leukocytes:

Recognize and respond to antigens

Where do T cells mature?

Thymus

Where do B Cells mature?

Bone marrow

Epitope?

Antigenic Determinant

What do B cells result in and what is its function?

Gives rise to plasma cells Secretes proteins called antibodies / immunoglobulins

2 responses to adaptive immunity:

Humoral Immune Response and Cell-Mediated Immune Response

Which Adaptive Immune Response? Involves activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies. Involves helper T cells.

Humoral Immune Response

Which Adaptive Immune Response? Involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells. Involves helper T cells.

Cell-Mediated Immune Response

Antibody Effect? Occurs when a pathogen can no longer infect a host because is it bound to an antibody.

Neutralization

Antibody Effect? Occurs when antibodies bound to antigens increase phagocytosis.

Opsonization

What is generated when antibodies with proteins of the complement system generate?

Membrane Attack Complex and Cell lysis

Are cell surface markers that identify as self

HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigens)

2 types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and where is each found?

1. Class 1 MHC - found on every nucleated cell body 2. Class 2 MHC - found on macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells

Present the epitope (antigen) to the immune system Initiates activation of T and B cells

Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)

After the presented antigen activates a lymphocytes the cell divides rapidly making what?

Effector and memory cells

Develops naturally in response to an infection.

Active Immunity

Provides immediate, short-term protection. Conferred naturally when IgG crosses the placenta OR when IgA passes through breast milk.

Passive Immunity

Methods of Asexual Repoduction

Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Pathenogenesis

Which method of asexual reproduction? Separation of a parent into 2 or more individuals of about the same size. Many invertebrates.

Fission

Which method of asexual reproduction? New individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones.

Budding

Which method of asexual reproduction? Breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults. Must be accompanied by regeneration (regrowth of lost body parts).

Fragmentation

Which method of asexual reproduction? The development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg.

Parthenogenesis

Sex Determination: XX - ? XY - ?

XX - female XY - male

Sex Determination: Haplodiploidy Haploids - ? Diploids - ?

Haploids - male Diploids - female

Sex Determination: ZW - ? ZZ - ?

ZW - female ZZ - male

Non-genetic Sex Determination

1. Temperature Dependent 2. Density Dependent

Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment.

External Fertilization

Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs in the tract.

Internal Fertilization

The release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle.

Ovulation

Area for insects in which sperm is stored during copulation?

Spermatheca

An opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems. Common in non-mammalian vertebrates.

Cloaca

Another name for an egg in mammals?

Oocyte

Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum by the process of ?

Oogenesis

Function of Corpus Lutem

Secretes hormones that help to maintain pregnancy

Egg travels from the ovary to the uterus via the (2 names)

Oviduct / Fallopian Tube

Function of Cilia in the oviduct

Conveys the egg to the uterus

Function of Leydig Cells

Produce hormones and are scattered between the tubules

Name of the uterus lining

Endometrium

Where do sperm form in male mammals?

seminiferous tubules

The produce of gametes by meiosis, differs in females and males.

Gametogenesis

Production of male sperm 4 sperm form from each cycle of meiosis Continues throughout life Produces sperm from precursor cells in a continuous sequence.

Spermatogenesis

Development of mature oocytes and can take many years Produces 1 egg Ceases later in life - menopause Long interruptions - pregnancy and nursing

Oogenesis

Promotes activity in the Sertoli cells (nourish developing sperm and are located within the seminiferous tubules)

FSH

regulates Leydig cells (secrete testosterone and other androgen hormones which in turn promote spermatogenesis)

Regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative feedback mechanisms.

Testosterone

What hormone do Sertoli cells secrete?

Inhibin

2 cycles of female reproduction?

1. Menstrual Cycle 2. Ovarian Cycle

Follicle growth and an increase in the hormone estradiol characterize the ?

Follicular Phase

Following ovulation, the follicular tissue left behind transforms into the corpus litmus?

luteal phase

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) function?

Prevents menstruation

Are characteristic of most mammals Endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period Length and frequency of estrus cycles caries from species to species

Estrous Cycles

Thickening of the endometrium is what phase of the uterine cycle?

proliferative phase

What is the outer layer of the blastocyst called and what is its function.

trophoblast Mingles with the endometrium and eventually forms the placenta

Development of the body organs

Organogenesis

The fetus grows and is very active. Mother may feel fetal movements. Uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious.

2nd Trimester

Fetus grows and fills the space within the embryonic membranes. Complex interplay of local regulators and hormones induces and regulates labor.

3rd Trimester

First 2-4 weeks, the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium. All the major structure are present by 8 weeks and the embryo is called a fetus. Main period of of organogenesis.

1st Trimester