Exam 3

Question 1

in Freud’s theory, areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development

Answer 1

Erogenous zones

Question 2

in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure

Answer 2

Id

Question 3

the first stage in Freud’s theory, occurring in the first year, in which the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity

Answer 3

Oral stage

Question 4

in psychoanalytic theory, the second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality

Answer 4

Ego

Question 5

the second stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from the second year through the third year, in which the primary source of pleasure comes from defecation

Answer 5

Anal stage

Question 6

the third stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 3 to age 6, in which sexual pleasure is focused on the genitalia

Answer 6

Phallic stage

Question 7

in psychoanalytic theory, the third personality structure, consisting of internalized moral standards

Answer 7

Superego

Question 8

the fourth stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 6 to age 12, in which sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities

Answer 8

Latency period

Question 9

the final stage in Freud’s theory, beginning in adolescence, in which sexual maturation is complete

Answer 9

Genital stage

Question 10

inconsistent response to a behavior; for example, sometimes punishing unacceptable behaviors, and other times ignoring it

Answer 10

Intermittent reinforcement

Question 11

a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior

Answer 11

Behavior modification

Question 12

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

Answer 12

Vicarious reinforcement

Question 13

child–environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment

Answer 13

Reciprocal determinism

Question 14

the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on

Answer 14

Self socialization

Question 15

being aware of the perspective of another person

Answer 15

Role taking

Question 16

in Dodge’s theory, the tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent

Answer 16

Hostile attributional bias

Question 17

refers to whether children are motivated by competence or by others’ views of their success

Answer 17

Achievement motivation

Question 18

a tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure

Answer 18

entity/helpless orientation

Question 19

a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure

Answer 19

incremental/mastery orientation

Question 20

(fixed mindset) a theory that a person’s level of intelligence of fixed and unchangeable

Answer 20

Entity theory

Question 21

(growth mindset) a theory that a person’s intelligence can grow as a function of experience

Answer 21

Incremental theory

Question 22

a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior that benefit their offspring

Answer 22

Parental-investment theory

Question 23

the immediate environment that an individual child experiences and participates in

Answer 23

Microsystem

Question 24

the interconnection among immediate, or microsystem, settings

Answer 24

Mesosystem

Question 25

environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but that can affect the child indirectly

Answer 25

Exosystem

Question 26

the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded

Answer 26

Macrosystem

Question 27

historical changes that influence the other systems

Answer 27

Chronosystem

Question 28

a syndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention

Answer 28

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Question 29

neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action

Answer 29

Emotions

Question 30

a theory in which emotions are viewed as innate, and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions

Answer 30

Discrete emotions theory

Question 31

theory which argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal; in this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment

Answer 31

Functionalist perspective

Question 32

smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge around 3rd month of life

Answer 32

Social smiles

Question 33

feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached

Answer 33

Separation anxiety

Question 34

emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us

Answer 34

Self-conscious emotions

Question 35

the use of a parent’s or another adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations

Answer 35

Social referencing

Question 36

the ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behavior

Answer 36

Emotional intelligence

Question 37

a social group’s informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions

Answer 37

Display rules

Question 38

a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions

Answer 38

Emotion regulation

Question 39

the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce their distress

Answer 39

Co-regulation

Question 40

repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation

Answer 40

Self-comforting behaviors

Question 41

looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one’s level of arousal

Answer 41

Self-distraction

Question 42

treatment that helps people recognize their own negative thoughts and thought patterns and learn ways to adjust those thoughts and related behaviors

Answer 42

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

Question 43

the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others

Answer 43

Social competence

Question 44

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture

Answer 44

Emotion socialization

Question 45

the use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with and properly express emotions

Answer 45

Emotion coaching

Question 46

an individual’s overall subjective evaluation of their own worth and the feelings they have about that evaluation

Answer 46

Self-esteem

Question 47

individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus though to be genetically based

Answer 47

Temperament

Question 48

the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of their social environment

Answer 48

Goodness of fit

Question 49

a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive

Answer 49

Differential susceptibility

Question 50

an emotional bond which a specific person that is enduring across space and time

Answer 50

Attachment

Question 51

theory based on John Bowlby’s work, which posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chance of their own survival

Answer 51

Attachment theory

Question 52

refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment

Answer 52

Secure base

Question 53

the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children’s interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.

Answer 53

Internal working model of attachment

Question 54

a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants’ attachment to their primary caregiver

Answer 54

Strange situation

Question 55

a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure. In the Strange Situation, a securely attached infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration.

Answer 55

Secure attachment

Question 56

a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the Strange Situation, insecure-resistant infants tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When their caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them.

Answer 56

Insecure-resistant attachment

Question 57

a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. If the infant gets upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent. disorganized/disoriented attachment: a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.

Answer 57

Insecure-avoidant attachment

Question 58

caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress

Answer 58

Parental sensitivity

Question 59

children’s sense of well-being both internally, such as in their emotions and stress levels, and externally, such as in their relationships with family members and peers

Answer 59

Mental health

Question 60

a physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment

Answer 60

Stress

Question 61

the experience of overwhelming levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate the effects of that stress

Answer 61

Toxic Stress

Question 62

traumatic childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, violence exposure, or death of a parent, that are linked to mental and physical health problems later in life

Answer 62

Adverse childhood experiences

Question 63

a state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life

Answer 63

Mental disorder

Question 64

the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder

Answer 64

Equifinality

Question 65

the concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a mental disorder

Answer 65

Multifinality