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A & P 2 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the structural characteristics of lymphatic capillaries?

A

Thin endothelial cells loosely joined with flap-like valves that open to allow fluid entry; no basement membrane; more permeable than blood capillaries

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2
Q

How do lymphatic vessels differ structurally from lymphatic capillaries?

A

Lymphatic vessels have thicker walls, valves to prevent backflow, and are lined by endothelial cells similar to veins.

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3
Q

What cells dominate lymphoid tissues and organs?

A

Lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.

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4
Q

What is the primary function of lymph nodes?

A

Filter lymph to trap pathogens; provide site for lymphocyte activation and immune response.

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5
Q

Describe the structure and function of the spleen.

A

Encapsulated organ with red pulp (filters old RBCs, contains macrophages) and white pulp (filters blood for pathogens, houses lymphocytes).

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6
Q

What is the primary role of the thymus?

A

Maturation and differentiation of T cells; produces thymic hormones.

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7
Q

What are examples of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)?

A

Tonsils and Peyer’s patches; involved in immune surveillance of mucosal surfaces.

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8
Q

What is the blood-thymus barrier?

A

A barrier formed by epithelial reticular cells that prevents immature T cells from encountering blood-borne antigens, protecting developing T cells.

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9
Q

Define lymphedema and its cause after lymph node removal.

A

Accumulation of lymph fluid causing swelling; occurs because lymph drainage pathways are disrupted after lymph node removal.

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10
Q

List seven examples of innate immunity.

A

1) Skin (physical barrier)
2) Mucous membranes
3) Phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils)
4) Natural killer (NK) cells
5) Complement system
6) Inflammatory response
7) Fever

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11
Q

What is the function of the complement system?

A

To opsonize pathogens, promote inflammation, and form membrane attack complexes that lyse pathogens.

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12
Q

Describe the pathway of complement activation.

A

Classical (antibody-dependent), alternative (pathogen surface-triggered), and lectin (lectin binds pathogen); all lead to C3 activation and cascade.

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13
Q

What are the key steps of the local inflammatory response?

A

Tissue injury → release of histamine and cytokines → vasodilation and increased permeability → leukocyte recruitment → pathogen destruction and tissue repair.

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14
Q

How is fever generated during infection?

A

Pyrogens stimulate the hypothalamus to raise body temperature, which enhances immune cell function and inhibits pathogen growth.

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15
Q

How do anti-inflammatory drugs like corticosteroids and NSAIDs work?

A

Corticosteroids inhibit cytokine production and immune cell activity; NSAIDs block prostaglandin synthesis to reduce inflammation and pain.

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16
Q

Define cytokines and their functions.

A

Small proteins secreted by immune cells that regulate immune responses, including cell signaling, inflammation, and hematopoiesis.

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17
Q

What is the mechanism of acquired/adaptive immunity?

A

Recognition of specific antigens, clonal expansion of lymphocytes, differentiation into effector and memory cells, and elimination of pathogens.

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18
Q

Compare B cells and T cells in adaptive immunity.

A

B cells produce antibodies (humoral immunity).
T cells include helper T (activate other immune cells), cytotoxic T (kill infected cells), and regulatory T (suppress immune response).

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19
Q

Describe the two mechanisms of antigen processing and presentation.

A

MHC I presents endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T cells.
MHC II presents exogenous antigens to helper T cells.

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20
Q

How do T cells recognize antigens and become activated?

A

T cell receptors bind antigen-MHC complexes; co-stimulatory signals activate T cells, leading to proliferation and differentiation.

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21
Q

How are B cells activated during an immune response?

A

B cell receptor binds antigen; helper T cells provide co-stimulation; B cells proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells producing antibodies.

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22
Q

What percentage of CO2 diffuses into red blood cells (RBCs) from the bloodstream?

A

About 93% of CO2 diffuses into RBCs.

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23
Q

What happens to CO2 once it diffuses into RBCs?

A

23% binds to hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin (Hb*CO2).

70% is converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3) by carbonic anhydrase, which then dissociates into H+ and HCO3−.

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24
Q

What is the “chloride shift” in CO2 transport?

A

HCO3− moves out of the RBC into plasma in exchange for Cl− entering the RBC to maintain electrical neutrality.

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25
How does hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen change as more oxygen molecules bind?
Hemoglobin changes shape after each O2 binds, increasing its affinity and making it easier for subsequent O2 molecules to bind (cooperative binding).
26
What causes the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve to shift to the right?
Decreased blood pH (acidosis) Increased temperature These conditions promote oxygen release to tissues (Bohr effect).
27
What causes the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve to shift to the left?
Increased blood pH (alkalosis) Decreased temperature These conditions make hemoglobin hold onto oxygen more tightly, reducing release.
28
Why is carbon monoxide (CO) dangerous in terms of oxygen transport?
CO binds to hemoglobin with 200–230 times the affinity of oxygen, forming carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces oxygen delivery to tissues and alters hemoglobin shape to hold oxygen more tightly.
29
What are the symptoms and treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning?
Symptoms: Confusion, dizziness, nausea, seizures, coma, death Treatment: 100% oxygen at atmospheric or hyperbaric pressure.
30
What muscles are involved in normal quiet inhalation?
Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.
31
What additional muscles are involved during forced inhalation?
Sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor, and serratus anterior.
32
What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during inhalation?
It decreases below atmospheric pressure, causing air to flow into the lungs.
33
What happens during exhalation?
The diaphragm relaxes and rib cage lowers, decreasing thoracic volume, increasing intrapulmonary pressure, and pushing air out of the lungs.
34
What is pneumothorax and its effect on the lungs?
Air enters the pleural cavity due to injury or alveolar rupture, causing lung collapse (atelectasis).
35
What are the main respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata?
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) for inspiration and ventral respiratory group (VRG) for forced breathing (both inspiration and expiration).
36
What is the role of the apneustic and pneumotaxic centers in the pons?
Apneustic center stimulates DRG to promote inhalation. Pneumotaxic center inhibits the apneustic center to regulate exhalation and breathing rate.
37
Which sensory receptors influence respiratory centers?
Chemoreceptors sensitive to PCO2, PO2, and pH (in blood and cerebrospinal fluid). Baroreceptors sensitive to blood pressure changes in aortic and carotid sinuses. Stretch receptors in lungs responding to lung volume.
38
What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)?
A group of lung diseases, mainly chronic bronchitis and emphysema, that obstruct airflow and make breathing difficult.
39
How does emphysema affect lung tissue?
It damages alveoli, reducing surface area for gas exchange and lung elasticity.
40
What factors affect lung compliance?
Connective tissue elasticity Surfactant levels Mobility of thoracic cage Lower compliance means lungs require more effort to expand.
41
How is airway resistance regulated?
Through bronchodilation (decreasing resistance) and bronchoconstriction (increasing resistance).
42
What is the main function of the lymphatic system?
To return interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, absorb fats from the digestive tract, and provide immune defense by transporting lymphocytes.
43
How does lymph move through lymphatic vessels?
Via skeletal muscle contractions, one-way valves preventing backflow, and pressure changes during breathing.
44
What is the role of lymph nodes?
They filter lymph, trap pathogens and foreign particles, and house immune cells (lymphocytes and macrophages) that initiate immune responses.
45
Name the primary lymphoid organs.
Bone marrow and thymus.
46
What occurs in the thymus?
T-lymphocytes mature and are educated to distinguish self from non-self.
47
What are tonsils and their function?
Lymphoid tissue in the pharynx that traps pathogens entering through the mouth or nose to help initiate immune responses.
48
How does the respiratory system facilitate gas exchange?
Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood; carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli.
49
What structural features increase surface area in the lungs?
Millions of alveoli with thin walls and extensive capillary networks.
50
What is the significance of the mucociliary escalator in the respiratory system?
It traps inhaled particles in mucus and moves them upward via cilia to be swallowed or expelled, protecting lungs from infection.
51
How does the lymphatic system contribute to respiratory health?
It drains excess fluid from lung tissues, filters pathogens, and supports immune defense in the respiratory tract.
52
What causes pulmonary edema?
Excess fluid accumulation in the lungs often due to left heart failure or increased capillary permeability.
53
What is the role of surfactant in the lungs?
It reduces surface tension in alveoli, preventing collapse and aiding lung compliance.
54
Describe the pleural cavity and its function.
A fluid-filled space between the visceral and parietal pleura that reduces friction and helps keep lungs expanded via negative pressure.
55
What is lymph?
Clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid, containing water, proteins, fats, and lymphocytes.
56
How does the lymphatic system aid in fat absorption?
Lacteals in the small intestine absorb dietary fats, which enter lymph and eventually the bloodstream.
57
Which immune cells are primarily found in lymphatic tissue?
B cells, T cells, and macrophages.
58
How does the respiratory system protect against airborne pathogens?
Through nasal hairs, mucus, cilia, cough reflex, and immune cells in the mucosa.
59
What is the effect of lymphatic obstruction?
Lymphedema — swelling due to accumulation of lymph fluid in tissues.
60
What controls the rhythm and depth of breathing?
Respiratory centers in the medulla and pons, influenced by chemical and mechanical receptors.
61
What are the 3 layers of glomerular filtration membrane?
1. Fenestrated endothelium (of capillaries) 2. Basement membrane (negatively charged) 3. Podocyte foot processes (with filtration slits)
62
What is GFR?
The rate at which filtrate is produced by all nephrons per minute (average ≈ 125 mL/min in adults).
63
What is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
65% of Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, water; 100% of glucose and amino acids.
64
What does the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) do?
Reabsorbs Na⁺ (regulated by aldosterone), secretes K⁺ and H⁺.
65
What occurs in the collecting duct (CD)?
Final water reabsorption (regulated by ADH); urea recycling.
66
How is Na⁺ reabsorbed at the cellular level?
Via Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pumps on basolateral membrane and Na⁺ channels or co-transporters on apical side.
67
How is glucose reabsorbed in the nephron?
Via Na⁺-glucose symporters (SGLTs) in PCT; saturates at high plasma glucose.
68
Where does most secretion occur?
In the DCT and collecting ducts (e.g., H⁺, K⁺, drugs).
69
What is countercurrent multiplication?
A process in the loop of Henle that creates an osmotic gradient in the medulla by pumping NaCl into the interstitial fluid.
70
What is the role of the vasa recta?
Maintains the medullary gradient via countercurrent exchange—absorbing water and solutes without dissipating the gradient.
71
What triggers renin release?
Low blood pressure, low Na⁺, sympathetic stimulation (via β1 receptors on JG cells).
72
What does renin do?
Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I → converted to angiotensin II by ACE.
73
Effects of angiotensin II?
Vasoconstriction, stimulates aldosterone release, increases ADH, increases thirst, raises BP.
74
How does ADH affect the kidney?
Increases water reabsorption in the collecting ducts via aquaporins.
75
How does aldosterone affect the kidney?
Increases Na⁺ reabsorption (and K⁺ secretion) in DCT and CD, indirectly increasing water retention.
76
What is the micturition reflex?
A spinal reflex triggered by stretch receptors in the bladder wall; causes contraction of detrusor muscle and relaxation of internal urethral sphincter.
77
How is urination voluntarily controlled?

A & P 2 (4 decks)

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