EXAM 3 Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
• Logic of Prisoner’s dilemma
A
Each of two criminals is offered immunity from prosecution in exchange for a confession. If both stay silent, both get off with a light sentence on a minor charge (upper left). If both confess, both receive a moderate sentence (lower right). But if one turns state’s evidence while the other stays mum, the confessing criminal goes free and the silent one spends a long time in jail. (best strategy – tit for tat – mimic other person)
2
Q
• real life Social dilemmas of prisoners game
A
public goods (certain threshold of people have to contribute for it to be there – blood bank, voting, taxes, EC in 101), common dilemmas (opposite – if too many people use the resource they all suffer – grazing sheep, water)
3
Q
• 2 Influences on solutions of social dilemmas (prisoners game)
A
psychological factors and situational factors
4
Q
• Factors that increase the chances of cooperation
A
group identity (make a name, feel bonded), norms of fairness (individual or collective sense), norms of punishment (we’re evolutionarily wired to get mad at cheaters, also to seek revenge at a cost to ourselves), accountability, reputation, reciprocity, pay it forward
5
Q
• Aggression
A
- any behavior that involves the intention to harm someone else
6
Q
• Roles of serotonin and testosterone
A
serotonin (low levels associated with being impulsive), testosterone (high level can have an effect but not as clear)
7
Q
• Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
A
really high sexual drive because of a damaged amygdala
8
Q
• Frustration-aggression hypothesis
A
frustration leads to aggressive behavior, even pinning infants arms makes them lash out
9
Q
• Culture of honor study - aggression
A
there are nonviolent societies, US is a moderately aggressive culture, within US “culture of honor” in the South and West - subcultures where we’re cultured our males to defend their turf and their honor - Southern men seen as more polite than Northern men, but if their turf is threatened they can get aggressive - had insult/no-insult condition, this suggests that we’re not an inherently violent species
10
Q
- Some explanations for altruism
A
- Cost of not helping would be more detrimental because you would feel bad and not be able to live with yourself
- Evolutionary psychology explanations – kin selection (more likely to help those who share our genes), norms of reciprocity
- Social exchange explanations – still self-interest, to maximize our rewards (reciprocity norm, gain social approval, increase self-esteem), minimize our costs (reduce our own distress)
- Can ease other’s distress if you identify with them (swap places in a shock study if you feel empathy)
11
Q
• Influences on whether or not people will help
A
urban overload hypothesis, p luralistic ignorance, diffusion of responsibility, bystander intervention effect, time pressure, social norms
12
Q
• Urban-overload hypothesis
A
when we’re in dense the urban-overload hypothesis - when we’re in dense crowded conditions, we shut down a little bit and are less likely to help
13
Q
o the unhelpful crowd - why? 3 things
A
diffusion of responsibility and the bystander effect - put them in situation where smoke is coming into room where you’re filling out forms - if you’re alone, probably will go do something, if there are others and they don’t react, they often don’t, in another study, if you hear something bad in the next room, more likely to go get help if they’re alone, but if with others, assume someone else will do it, or that it’s not as big a problem - called pluralistic ignorance (if nobody else is concerned, I don’t want to stick out)
14
Q
- The difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs
A
- Cross-sectional studies – comparing different groups to make inferences about both (ex – young and old)
- Longitudinal research designs – reassessing the same participants over time to years to look at change
15
Q
• Dynamic systems theory
A
the view that development is a self-organizing process, where new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and his or her cultural and environmental contexts
16
Q
• Explains emergence of new behaviors (dynamic systems theory)
A
new behaviors occur through person’s active exploration of environment and constant feedback from that environment – every new behavioral skill to emerge is the result of a complex and dynamic system of influences
17
Q
• Synaptic pruning – why?
A
use it or lose it – have more synapses than they need – focus on those use and myelinate important circuits, brain organizes itself by what it considers to be important environmentally
18
Q
• The impact, short- and long-term, of poverty and malnutrition on early brain growth
A
less myelination, lack energy to interact with objects and people in their environments, lack of stimulation creates deleterious effects that change them throughout life
19
Q
• Piaget - basic ideas
A
believed that children develop cognitively through interactions with their environment – 4 stages of cognitive development
20
Q
• Assimilation
A
placing a piece of information into a bin that is pre-existing
21
Q
• Accommodation
A
taking a new piece of information that doesn’t fit into existing schemas and creating a new one
22
Q
What are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to Piaget? Yrs?
A
Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete operations (7-11), Formal Operations (11+)
23
Q
• Sensorimotor
A
(0-2) – uses senses and motor skills to explore/develop cognitively, no object permanence (slowly develops), A not B phenomenon
24
Q
• Preoperational
A
(2-7) – capacity to represent world using symbols, including language, but errors in thinking – lack conservation (centration, reversibility), confuse appearance and reality, egocentrism
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• Conservation - def, why not possible at preop
can’t hold two competing ideas in mind at once/focus on more than one thing – ex – water into a bigger glass, spreading out pennies, line length when not parallel, mashed clay ball, spreading out squares in an area
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egocentrism – how Piaget tested these in children
tested using pictures of mountains, cant see from another person’s perspective because can’t hold two competing ideas in their minds at once
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• Concrete operations
(7 to 11)
• Thinking based on mental “operations”
• can mentally manipulate and think logically about objects and events
• Can do conservation problems (can understand that actions are reversible)
• Limits: Cannot think abstractly and hypothetically (instead focus on the real and concrete)
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• Formal operations
(11+)
• Can think abstractly and hypothetically, e.g.,
• You are given 4 flasks of colorless liquid and one flask of colored liquid. By combining 2 of the colorless liquids, you can create the colored liquid. How to find the right 2 liquids? – systematically add one to the other (younger kids combine randomly)
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• Vygotsky’s ideas
– can’t think about cognitive development without considering social aspects of learning, cognitive development a consequence of social interaction, culture → language → cognitive development, cognitive skills can increase when scaffolded within their ZPD
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• Differences Piaget and Vygotsky
* piaget – child as little scientist, cognitive development about the same universally/globally, cognitive growth arises from child’s independent exploration, training not good at facilitating development
* vygotsky – child as apprentice, cognitive development different based on cultural context, cognitive growth from social interactions within culture, training can facilitate development
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Zygotsky’s zone of proximal development
what they can do when scaffolded
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• Zygtosky’s scaffolding
help from someone else to allow a child to do something at a higher level than they are capable of themselves
33
• factors that influence attraction and friendship
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Physical Attractiveness
• Proximity
• Familiarity (mere exposure effect)
• Similarity
• Reciprocal liking
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passionate love
state of intense longing and sexual desire, continually aroused, associated with dopamine reward systems like drugs
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• companionate love
strong commitment to care for and support a partner, comes after passionate love in enduring relationships, develops over time based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy
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• idealization
people who love their partners the most idealize them the most too, viewing them in an unrealistically positive light compared to everyone else, more likely to stick around longer than those with “realistic” view, helps hide ugly truths
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• the section, “Staying in Love Can Require Work,” including Gottman’s research on what makes for happy marriages
– keep 5:1 ratio of positive to negative interactions, make partner-enhancing attributions, do things her way, avoid 4 horsemen
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• Four horsemen of the apocalypse
serious threats that these patterns pose to relationships = criticism, contempt (most corrosive), defensiveness, withdrawals/stonewalling - (if all 4 are present, he can say with 90% accuracy that they will not be together in 5 years)`
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• the attributional styles and accommodations of happy vs. unhappy couples
* Happy couples - attribute good outcomes to each other, bad outcomes to situation, practice accommodation (overlook bad behavior and respond constructively)
* Unhappy couples – attribute good outcomes to situations, bad outcomes to each other
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Marriage satisfaction trends
drops in the first 4 years and stabilizes
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• How do we know what infants know? - 3 research techinques
preferential looking (if they hold focus on something), habituation (getting used to something after repetitive stimulation), and dishabituation (when something previously habituated is surprising after a change in environment)
42
8. Be familiar with Baillargeon’s research using the violation of expectancy protocol --discussed in book and shown in the videos you saw in class.
* Show babies something not possible or “magic” and see if their attention is held longer- measure looking time
* Used to study infants’ understanding of physical laws, object permanance
43
9. What kinds of core knowledge do infants seem to have about physical properties and mathematics that Piaget’s methods underestimated?
• Seem to understand object permanence – look longer at impossible events, also addition/subtraction (numerical representation), and physical laws (2 objects can’t occupy same space)
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10. Infant memory
• Even young children show that they are capable of forming implicit memories (e.g., procedural memory, classical conditioning effects) (ex – if foot tied to mobile, 2 weeks later, will shake foot when they see a mobile to try to move it)
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the order in which different types of memory develop
implicit (young kids), explicit, semantic, episodic
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• Early understanding other’s intentions - what was the study
infants appear to be able to understand intention – habituated to person grabbing ball on left, with teddy on right, swap positions, and when they grab the teddy, look longer at that action than when ball is grabbed
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sticky mittens - overall conclusion
physical development facilitates cognitive, sticky mittens allows babies who can’t grab, are still at swiping stage, to put objects closer - this accelerated cognitive development
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• Theory of mind - def, tasks that show it
predicting a person’s behavior by correctly identifying their mental state – even infants understand people perform actions for a reason
• young children’s thought found not to be as egocentric as Piaget claimed
• did a study where they had to place a little boy where policemen couldn’t see him - 90% of them could get it right - thought to have worked because more applicable to these kids than the looking at the mountain task
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• false belief task
Ex - 3 year old mind - shown juicebox, asks what they think is inside (they say juice) and pull ribbons old of the bottom, ask them what they originally thought was inside (they say juice)
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The maturation of what brain structure is important to the development of theory of mind and episodic memory?
• Coincides with development of frontal lobe
51
13. Why can’t young children conserve or understand false beliefs
• They don’t realize they can think things others don’t know, think that what they think, everyone else things – childhood innocence
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14. The universal characteristics of languages;
* Symbolic language = semantics
| * Rules = syntax/grammar
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15. What is meant by a ‘critical’ or ‘sensitive’ period for development, and what is some evidence that one exists for language?
* Sensitive period - time periods when specific skills develop most easily
* Children tend to learn language at the same rate and in same steps
* Evidence for critical periods – case studies
* Chelsea:
* Discovered to be deaf at age 31
* Acquired small vocabulary, little grammar
* Genie:
* Isolated by parents until 13 years
* Good vocabulary, little grammar
* http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA
* Isabel
* First language exposure at 6.5 years
* Acquired normal language
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16. Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD);
Language-Acquisition Device
• universal grammar, even among invented ones;
• some “built-in” assumptions;
• universal sequence & timing; critical period
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surface structure vs. deep structure;
* surface structure – the sound and order of words
| * deep structure – implicit meaning of sentences
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• evidence of innate language capability
those not given a language create their own
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17. What are some components of the language acquisition support system (LASS)?
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• The Language –Acquisition Support System, aka “motherese” (infant-directed speech)
o Exaggerations
o Repetitions
o Slow pace
o Scaffolding of turn-taking
•
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LAD vs. LASS - which is nature nurture
Whereas LAD is an internal support for language (nature), LASS is an external one (nurture)
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18. Attachment theory
* Attachment: strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances. [p. 374]
* Universal human phenomenon
* Attachment figure(s) as secure base for exploration
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IWMs
* Child develops “internal working model” or cognitive representation of relationships
* Early relationships with caregivers as a template for future relationships
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19. The point of the Belsky, Spritz, & Crnic study (on secure and insecure children’s memory about ‘social’ events in a puppet show)
* One way internal working models might work – memory, attention, and attachment history
* Something happens during puppet show, positive or negative
* Attention for pos and neg are the same
* But secure kids remember positive events better, and insecure kids remember negative events better
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how the three attachment styles are manifested in adult romantic relationships
* Secure attachment - content to explore with mom nearby, cries when mom leaves, easily comforted when mom returns
* Avoidant – explores room when mother absent, unfazed by separation, avoids or ignores mother when reunited
* Anxious/ambivalent – clings to mother rather than exploring, very upset by mother’s absence, is ambivalent when reunited (doesn’t avoid her, but isn’t completely comforted by her, either)
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how someone with an insecure attachment history can become an ‘earned secure.’
* Does our initial attachment status doom us or guarantee a happy life??
* NO!
* Environments can change
* Relationships can alter IWMs
* “Earned secures”
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21. Know the four parenting styles identified by Baumrind, how they differ in terms of warmth (responsiveness) and control(demandingness), and very generally, the child outcomes they’re most correlated with
* High warmth and control – authoritative (have boundaries and discipline) – happy, self-confident, good emotional regulation and social skills
* Low warmth high control – authoritarian (obedience key) – anxious, withdrawn, poor frustration tolerance, do well in school, less likely to engage in antisocial behaviors
* High control low warmth – Permissive (Regina’s mom) – poor emotion regulation, rebellious, defiant when desires challenged, low persistence, antisocial behaviors
* Low warmth and low control – Uninvolved (don’t care)
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22. Why authoritative parenting style leads to better outcomes
* But know that authoritative parenting is best – respect kids, provide boundaries, hit that good middle ground
* Authoritarian parenting a more power assertive style of discipline
* Authoritative and permissive a more inductive style of discipline
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23. Have a general understanding of Erikson’s theory/model of human development across the life span. You should know the psychosocial crises in infancy and adolescence
* Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Human Development – 8 age-related social psychological challenges and their effects on social functioning across the life span
* Each is a “developmental crisis” is meant to be confronted, and by not doing so you hinder your progress
* Infancy – trust vs mistrust - coincides with time when they form attachment to key caregivers
* Adolescence – identity vs role confusion
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24. From lecture, what are the major social (peer relations) developmental tasks of early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence?
* Peer relationship tasks across development
* Early childhood – coordination of play
* Middle childhood – inclusion by peers, friends
* Adolescence – identity, autonomy
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• Peer relationships - Importance in development
* Companionship, support, sense of well-being
* Development of social skills, learning norms
* Learning of new skills and cognitive capabilities
* Role in moral development
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25. Gender identity, gender roles, gender schemas.
* Gender identity – what you experience as your gender (not necessarily biological sex) – personal beliefs about whether one is male or female
* Gender roles – the roles our society places on men vs women – conventional thoughts
* Gender schemas – ways that our country socially perceives to be male or female traits
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• Point of case study about Bruce/Brenda Reimer
tells us that gender identity isn’t shaped simply by your biological sex through your genitals, or the way you’re treated, but comes from biological signs such as brain chemistry from early prenatal development
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26. How boys and girls are treated differently by adults in our culture, and how this socialization contributes to the establishment of gender roles.
* From birth, boys and girls are treated differently (girls get more leeway than boys if they deviate – you can be a tomboy, but guys don’t get as much room to explore)
* Observed parents taking their kids through a science museum – coded conversations between parents and boy vs girl children
* Found they talked to them differently – looked at percentage of times they explained them – more likely to explain to boys than girls
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27. Why psychologists are concerned about children who are disliked and rejected by their peers
* Rejected status a risk factor for a wide range of developmental outcomes (drugs, bad relationships, in jail, teen pregnancy, dishonorable discharges from military)
* Situation worse for kids who are rejected due to aggressive behavior
* But even one quality friendship can serve as a buffer
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28. Understand the complementary roles of parents and peers in identity development. The findings of the New York Longitudinal Study re: what’s most important in fostering a child’s healthy social development (p. 406)
• NY study – most important factor in determining a child’s social development – the fit of the child’s biological temperament and personality, and the parents’ behaviors
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• Characteristics of peer relationships in adolescence
form friendships with those whose values and worldviews are similar to their own, give them a sense of belonging and acceptance
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• the two dimensions along which cliques/crowds are often characterized
involvement in adult institutions, and involvement in peer culture
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30. Steinberg’s developmental neuroscience explanation for why recklessness and delinquency peak in adolescence – the two brain systems and their developmental timetables;
by about age 15-16, they are as good as logical reasoning as adults, but their psychosocial maturity (limbic system and prefrontal cortex) lags behind – so there’s a gap between the two
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• Why recklessness in delinquency?
• Adolescents, young adults, and adults put in driving simulator where they can take risks
• All the same when alone – risk wise, but with a friend, adolescents take WAY more risks – limbic system social need causes this
caused by gap in development of limbic sys/prefrontal, and logical reasoning
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31. Understand the APA’s rationale in their arguments to the Supreme Court about whether 17-year-olds should be treated like adults in abortion decisions and criminal justice
abortion - APA says can make decision (logical reasoning fine) but need parent consent
criminal justice - 17 year old death penalty abolished - too susceptible to peers, impulsive
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32. The benefits of a happy or unhappy marriage on health;
• Benefits of marriage – increased longevity, men make more money and therefore have better resources, wives make sure their husbands don’t drink as much, smoke, and go to the doctor, men have higher sexual satisfaction, and women have more emotional satisfaction
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the impact of children on marital satisfaction.
can bring great joy and satisfaction, but can also be strain on money and time, if they don’t divvy up duties before kid is born they may be unhappy
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33. Cognitive changes in old age
* motor responses are slower, lower visual contrast, lower sound sensitivity, lower ability to hold multiple things in working memory at once – can’t multitask well, long term memory less impacted
* Fluid intelligence declines with age, crystallized intelligence is fine
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1. What we mean by projective and objective measures of personality
* Projective measures – personality traits that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli (ex – inkblot test)
* Objective measures – relatively direct assessments of personality, usually based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings
83
• Trait theory's definition of personality
personality = a unique pattern of traits which resides within the individual & generates behavior
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what are traits
• Traits = consistent patterns in the way we behave, feel, and think
85
how well do they predict behavior? Explain behavior?
* “relatively stable predispositions to behave in a particular and consistent way”
* Are related to behavior, account for consistency in behavior
* Are structures that theoretically can predict and explain behavior -- but beware tautology - because being extroverted, or example, doesn’t explain much, just predicts that they’ll introduce themselves to more people, for example
* Traits cause a person to respond to similar environmental situations in a similar way
* Create possible range of responses
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3. Understand the technique and general logic of factor analysis as a method for identifying essential traits.
* Factor analysis technique - Factor analysis takes a bunch of traits, multiplies them across a matrix, and tries to figure out which traits are related to one another
* Traits are factors that have high positive intercorrelations with each other, e.g., which of these would go together?
* Cattell – 16 core traits
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4. Eysenck’s biological explanation for extraversion/introversion.
* The Arousal Hypothesis – introverts are chronically over-aroused à react sooner and more strongly to external stimulation; thus avoid stimulation (they already have plenty)
* Eysenck’s later revision – difference lies in arousability (arousal response), not baseline level of arousal
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5. What is the controversy in the person-situation debate, and what arguments do trait theorists make in response to those who suggest that traits have little predictive value?
* The person-situation controversy – behaviors driven by which?
* Correlations ~ .40 (the “personality coefficient”) - (correlations can go from -1 to +1, so this is not the strongest correlation)
* Trait theorists say:
* Aggregation à predicting general trends
* People are different [“The same fire that melts the butter hardens the egg.”(Allport)]
* Traits cause a person to respond to similar environmental situations in a similar way
* Create possible range of responses
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Situationism
the theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits
90
weak and strong situations
* Strong situations (elevators, funerals, job interviews) – tend to mask differences in personality because of the power of the social environment
* Weak situations (parks, bars, your own house) tend to reveal differences in personality
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• Interactionism
believe behavior is determined by jointly by situations and underlying dispositions
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6. Five-Factor model of personality – what are the five factors?
* Openness
* Ideas, activities
* Conscientiousness
* Control, organization
* Extroversion
* Large vs. small groups
* Agreeableness
* Others-focus
* Neuroticism
* Intensity, changeability of emotions
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Criticisms of Five-Factor Theory.
* The Big 5 are not truly orthogonal
* Cross-cultural replication and validity?
* Describes structure of traits in a population, not an individual
* There is more to personality than just 5 traits
* Limitations of the factor analytic approach
* As with all trait approaches, overemphasis on consistency; predicts but doesn’t explain
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7. Stability of personality; changes across life span in personality (five factor model)
* Very stable over time, sets around 30
* Age-related changes in personality occur independently of environmental influences, and personality change may be based in human psychology
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8. What sex differences have been found in personality? Why do we see greater differences in more egalitarian and developed countries? (pp. 586-587)
* Women – more empathetic and agreeable, more neurotic and concerned about feelings
* Men – more assertive
* Greater differences in more egalitarian and developed countries because women’s rights to education and work to allow greater personal expression of individuality
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9. Genetic component of personality – generally, what role do genetics play in personality, and to what degree? (590-592)
o They account for 40-60% of variation in personality
o Also temperament – biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways
o So heritability of many traits is like .5, which is a lot – sensitivity, political attitudes, etc
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10. Kagan’s temperament research with inhibited and uninhibited infants (video).
o Kagan video – stimulate children by adding children to the mobile and predict those disturbed by it will be more quiet
o Temperament:
Kagan’s inhibited & uninhibited children
(high and low reactive)
o Simple observational procedure at age 4 months predicted tendency toward shyness or sociability at later ages
o Considerable stability up through adolescence
o Physiological correlates – inhibited:
o Greater right brain activity, higher levels of amygdala activity in response to novel stimuli
o Evidence supports the role of the amygdala in vigilance and attention to uncertainty
o Kagan’s caveat: Biology is NOT destiny.
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Biological components of shyness
amygdala is involved (also processes fear)
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o Social components of shyness
with the proper support from parents, children can grow out of shyness, also a cultural component – some cultures tend to be more shy than others
100
11. Have an understanding of Gray’s BIS and BAS, introverts vs extraverts
* Gray’s reinterpretation of Eysenck’s theory à
* Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
* Behavioral Approach System (BAS) – seeks rewards
* Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) – avoiding punishment or pain
* Extraverts – more BAS, introverts, more BIS
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12. If evolution favors the most adaptive behaviors, why don’t we all have similar personalities?
• Groups that have members with diverse skills are most adaptive
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13. Basic premises of psychodynamic theory (what makes a theory a psychodynamic theory?), the basic drives according to Freud, Freud’s idea of intrapsychic conflict among the id, ego, and superego; the role of the ego
* The Dynamic Unconscious
* Psychic determinism
* Closed energy system – follow the energy!
* The basic instincts (drives)
* Levels of consciousness -- unconscious motivation
* Internal structure -- id, ego, superego à
* Psychic conflict
* Defense mechanisms
* Developmental stages
* Psychic Determinism
* Everything a person thinks and does has a cause that can (in principle) be identified
* and the cause is usually found in the unconscious
* Mind fuelled by psychic energy (libido) derived from the life preserving drives.
* Id
* Basic drives (seek pleasure, avoid pain)
* Superego
* The conscience, seat of social propriety
* Ego
* Integrates the needs of the Id and the Superego with the reality of the outside world
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14. Anxiety – what causes it (according to Freud).
• Anxiety = ego threatened by reality, id impulses, or controlling superego
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Defense mechanisms – what function(s) they serve. Be able to identify examples of particular defense mechanisms.
* Defense mechanisms – unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself form distress
* Repression Regression
* Denial Reaction Formation
* Displacement Rationalization
* Projection Sublimation
* Isolation (intellectualization)
* Identification (introjection)
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15. Ways that unconscious material “leaks out” anyway, in spite of defense mechanisms we use to keep it in check.
* Pressure valves for the id… how forbidden impulses get out anyway
* Parapraxes
* Forgetting (motivated forgetting)
* Slips (Freudian ones, of course!)
* Humor – surprise, and before our defense mechanisms go up, we derive pleasure from it because it brings unconscious things to the surface
* For example – those who don’t find racist jokes funny, even if they are surprised, means they were expecting it or don’t have an unconscious urge to racially put down others
* Dreams
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16. Freud’s five developmental stages.
* Oral stage – (birth-18mo’s) – associate pleasure with sucking because of breast feeding
* Anal stage (2-3) – learning to toilet train so focus on bowels
* Phallic stage (3-5) – focus on genitals, rub them without knowing why
* Latency stage (6-puberty) – interacting with peers and doing schoolwork
* Genital stage (puberty on) – center on their urges to reproduce
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17. Basic premises of contemporary psychodynamic theory – different from Freud’s ideas in what ways?
• Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories
(e.g. object relations theory, attachment theory)
• Unconscious still plays a large role in life – but is it a cognitive unconscious or a motivated unconscious?
• Behavior often reflects compromises in conflicts between mental processes
• Childhood plays an important part in personality development
• Mental representations of the self and relationships guide our interactions w/others
• Personality development involves much more than sexual and aggressive feelings
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18. Humanistic theory of personality.
* Humanistic Theories – Rogers & Maslow
* Emphasis on personal growth, conscious awareness, and the self
* Our perception of reality is what matters
* Free will and its responsibilities
* People are basically good.
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What Rogers meant by actualizing tendency/self-actualization
• The ‘actualizing tendency’ – live life to the fullest and meet your highest potential – most basic drive
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Unconditional positive regard, and how Rogers felt personality was affected when we receive instead conditional positive regard.
* Unconditional vs. conditional positive regard (conditions of worth)
* Mental health is related to the degree of congruence between belief (the self-concept) & life experiences.
* “unconditional positive regard” – I love you but not your behavior
* “Conditional love” – I don’t love you when you’re angry
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19. According to social-cognitive theories, what are the four components that make up the structure of personality?
o Competencies and skills
o Beliefs and expectancies
o Goals and intentions
o Evaluative standards
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20. Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy
* Beliefs about the self and one’s ability to perform a particular behavior (so domain-specific)
* Efficacy
* Influence effort, persistence, even actual performance
113
Rotter’s locus of control, their impact on behavior.
* Outcome expectancies or LOC (locus of control) re: reinforcements in environment
* Internal
* External
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Be able to ID particular kinds of attributions (like the coding you did in lab) . 4 things
* Internal vs. external
* Stable vs. unstable
* Global vs. specific
* (and controllable vs. uncontrollable)
* Internal (I blew it on that one question) vs external (well they didn’t want someone from Duke anyway)
* Stable vs unstable (duration of impact on you)
* Stable – would happen again
* Unstable – one time thing
* Global (I never come across the way I want to – more overall and general) vs specific (I don’t do well in interviews with more than one person – bad at something specific )
* Controllable – you can change this
* Uncontrollable – beyond what you have power over
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22. Pessimistic explanatory style and its relationship to depression
* Pessimistic style emphasizes
| * Internal, stable, and global causes for failure
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23. What is meant by self-concept
* Everything you know about yourself – who am I?
* self narrative
* self-schemas (interrelated knowledge about the self
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24. Self-awareness
being able to think about yourself
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• Higgins self-discrepancy theory
an individual’s awareness of differences between personal standards and goals leads to strong emotions
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25. Self-esteem
indicates a person’s appraisal of their own personal characteristics and how they think about themselves, way to monitor likelihood of social exclusion
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• Sociometer
internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection – self esteem is an example
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• Sociometer theory
says that humans have a fundamental, adaptive need to belong, and if they behave in ways that will get them rejected, they will have reduced self esteem
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26. Ways we protect our self-esteem
* Self-handicapping – doing something/claiming something that increases the likelihood that you will do badly (like procrastinating) so we have a scapegoat to blame so we can keep our self esteem intact
* Self-evaluative maintenance – feeling bad when outperformed in something personally relevant to you – people protect themselves by distancing themselves from that person or picking something else to do
* Social comparisons – protect themselves by downward social comparison
* Self-serving biases – tendency to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
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1. What is psychopathology?
• Sickness or disorder of the mind
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2. The three D’s -- the criteria psychologists use to judge whether a behavior is abnormal
• Distress, dysfunction (maladaptive?), deviance (from cultural norms or accepted behavior)
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3. What the DSM is and what function(s) it serves
• DSM – Diagnositic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – APA uses it as a way to systematically categorizing mental disorders
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4. How psychological disorders are assessed
• Assessment - in psychology, examination of a person’s mental state to diagnose possible psychological status – goal is make diagnosis, then provide prognosis (course and probable outcome)
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description of a mental status exam
• Mental status exam – behavioral observations to determine symptoms, and if they are physical or mental in nature - method of initial assessment
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difference between structured and unstructured interviews
* Unstructured clinical interview – psychologist tries to determine more about client – highly flexible and unfixed, depends on patient – dependent on interviewer’s skills and experience to guide it
* Structured clinical interview – standardized questions asked in fixed order – SCID (structured clinical interview for DSM), then responses coded using formula
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basic info about the MMPI,
– Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – questionnaire for psychological assessment – self report might be biased though, so this test accounts for that with validity scales for truthfulness to determine if they are simply trying to present perfection
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what is meant by evidence-based assessment
research guides the evaluation of mental disorders, selection of tests, and diagnosis – for example, science says to account for comorbidity, which is when more than one issue is present, like substance abuse and depression
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5. Your book describes three types of factors that contribute to psychological disorders –
* Biological (genetics – predispositions)
* Psychological – mental issues that impact behavior, defense mechanisms, cultural, socioeconomic
* cognitive-behavioral – classical and operant conditioning perpetuate disorders, then cognitive part is that thoughts impact your mental state
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• Categories of causes/contributing factors of mental disorders: 3 p's
* Predisposing – genetic vulnerability – more likely because of genetics, but can also be env – childhood trauma
* Precipitating – Things that happen that push you toward something
* Perpetuating – things that keep happening that continue to push you
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6. Diathesis-stress model
* Diagnostic model – proposes that a disorder can arise when you combine an underlying vulnerability with precipitating event
* Takes into account nature (genetic predisposition) and nurture (childhood trauma) and determines how vulnerable you are to a mental disorder
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7. Role of gender and culture in incidence or diagnosis of disorders, e.g., why more internalizing disorders diagnosed in females, especially depression?
* Women – higher incidence of internalizing, e.g., anxiety & depression twice that of men
* Men – higher incidence of externalizing, e.g., antisocial personality disorder, substance use
* Arise from mix of biological and environmental factors
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8. Be able to recognize the general symptoms of the types of anxiety disorders, OCD, 9. Be able to recognize the predisposing and precipitating biological (genetic, brain structure, hormonal, etc.), psychological, and cognitive-behavioral factors contributing to or related to the development of these disorders.
* OCD - Obsessions - irrational, disturbing thoughts that intrude into consciousness
* Compulsions - repetitive actions performed to alleviate obsessions
* Partly genetic, partly conditioning
* Heightened neural activity in caudate nucleus
* More common in women
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8. Be able to recognize the general symptoms of the types of anxiety disorders, PTSD, 9. Be able to recognize the predisposing and precipitating biological (genetic, brain structure, hormonal, etc.), psychological, and cognitive-behavioral factors contributing to or related to the development of these disorders.
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• PTSD - Follows traumatic event or events such as war, rape, or assault [precipitated by trauma]
• Symptoms include:
• nightmares
• flashbacks
• sleeplessness
• easily startled
• depression
• irritability
• Brain-imaging ID’s important neural correlates
o Heightened amygdala activity
o Decreased medial prefrontal cortex activity
o Smaller hippocampus (pre-existing)
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8. Be able to recognize the general symptoms of the types of anxiety disorders, depressive disorder9. Be able to recognize the predisposing and precipitating biological (genetic, brain structure, hormonal, etc.), psychological, and cognitive-behavioral factors contributing to or related to the development of these disorders.
* Depressive disorder – depressed mood, loss of interest in things you like (anhedonia)
* Genetics : heritability estimates 33-45%
* (Identical twins – >50% concordance, fraternal 20%)
* - particular genes (5-HTT)
* - may also influence levels of monoamines (serotonin and norepinephrine)
* Brain structures – low activity in left PFC, increased in right PF
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8. Be able to recognize the general symptoms of the types of anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder 9. Be able to recognize the predisposing and precipitating biological (genetic, brain structure, hormonal, etc.), psychological, and cognitive-behavioral factors contributing to or related to the development of these disorders.
* Bipolar disorders - cycling between depression and mania (extreme euphoria)
* Mood levels swing from severe depression to extreme euphoria (mania)
* No regular relationship to time of year (like SAD), no gender differences
* Highest heritability among mental disorders
* ID twins 70% concordance,
* fraternal 30%
* Often treated with lithium
* DSM-V: 2 forms, I & II
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10. Be familiar with the symptoms of schizophrenia (positive and negative), and its predisposing and precipitating factors.
* Profound disruption of basic psych processes, distorted perception of reality
* Prevalence about 1%
* Impairments in ability to: - Work, Care for self, Connect socially with others
* Symptoms – Delusions, Hallucinations*, Disorganized speech*, Disorganized/catatonic behavior
* Negative symptoms - Diminished affect, Impoverished speech, Lack of motivation, Social avoidance
* Predisposing and precipitating factors - ~60% heritability -- rates increase greatly with biological relatedness.
* Prenatal and perinatal factors (virus?, brain damage)
* Dopamine hypothesis: an excess of dopamine activity?
* Effects and treatments related to neurotransmitters have yet to be completely determined.
* Enlarged ventricles and progressive tissue loss in many cases of schizophrenia.
* Disturbed family environment may affect development and recovery of schizophrenia.
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• Difference between delusion and hallucination
delusions are false beliefs based on incorrect inferences, whereas hallucinations are false sensory perceptions experienced without an external source
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11. Understand/recognize brain abnormalities often found in those with schizophrenia
* Enlarged ventricles
| * Greater number of synapses pruned away in adolescence – brain tissue loss
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12. Which disorders seem to have the highest heritability? The lowest?
* Highest – schizophrenia
| * Lowest – PTSD, OCD
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1. Be able to tell the difference between different therapy approaches: psychodynamic,
* Psychodynamic – bring unconscious material into consciousness (possible techniques - free association (they have stream of consciousness and psychologist tries to link ideas), dream interpretation (idea is that dreams are disguised unconscious material), projective techniques) – links to Freud’s ideas
* Psychodynamic therapy – catharsis (talking cure), therapist offers interpretation and help them work through things, deal with underlying conflict not surface symptoms (reduces symptom substitution), resistance may occur as a defense (if they don’t want to talk about it, probably something there), transference of feelings to therapist (if fear of abandonment, may accuse therapist of not caring)
* BASICALLY - Get at underlying problems, looking at person’s defenses, looking at unconscious
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1. Be able to tell the difference between different therapy approaches: humanistic
* Humanistic therapy - emphasis on inner potential for positive growth – want to help them take control of life, client-centered, therapist is sounding board (Rogers)
* Humanistic therapy connection to humanistic theory – actualizing tendency -therapy tries to increase congruence between actual and ideal self so people can reach their highest potential, show people unconditional positive regard
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1. Be able to tell the difference between different therapy approaches: cognitive/behavioral
* Behavioral therapy – concentrate on observable stimuli and responses (a lot of reward based things, or punishment to change behavior, along with modeling) – connects to Skinner’s ideas about reward and behaviorism
* Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) – believes people disturb themselves with their own thoughts – correct this! - identify maladaptive cognitions and replace with adaptive ones, problem centered, more directive than humanistic (sounding board – Rogers) – overall find thoughts, behaviors, and emotions are connected!
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how Ellis’s ABC theory and Rogers’ humanistic theory relate to or explain the approaches they took with Gloria.
• Ellis’s ABC theory –negative emotions arise form people’s irrational interpretations of experiences - A is activating event/thought, B is triggered belief, C – emotional consequence of that belief – idea is if you can change your thoughts, you can change your world – can make this process positive or negative
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2. What are some of the “clues” to the unconscious utilized by psychodynamic therapists? What are resistance and transference?
* Free association – letting the client talk stream of consciousness, and the therapist makes connections between what they’re saying and how they feel unconsciously
* Dream interpretation – dreams are thought to be manifestation of unconscious
* Projective techniques
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3. The three characteristics of a therapist that Rogers felt were necessary in creating a therapeutic environment.
* Empathy – attempt to comprehend feelings from client’s point of view, use of reflection
* Unconditional positive regard – client is worthy and capable no matter what client does or says, creates safe, nonjudgmental atmosphere
* Therapist is genuine, congruent (aware of one’s own feelings and able to accept them), even transparent (not like they’re expert, they need to be honest – ok to disclose to client)
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4. For which disorders (of those we discussed) is medication the primary treatment of choice?
• Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia
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5. The most effective treatments for panic disorder,
• Panic disorder – exposure therapy/flooding – repeated exposure to the thing that makes them scared to that they reach a breakthrough, take off training wheels – always paired with CBT
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5. The most effective treatments for phobi
• Phobias – systematic desensitization (relate relaxation with feared object, use increasingly frightening scenes)
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5. The most effective treatments for OCD
• OCD – CBT or exposure with responsive prevention
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5. The most effective treatments for bipolar disorder
• Bipolar disorder – typically drugs are used here (lithium or other antidepressants), but takes away some of the highs, also psychotherapy to come to terms with thoughts and change them
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5. The most effective treatments for schizophrenia
• Schizophrenia – antipsychotic meds, social skills training or intensive CBT to help them understand their behaviors and help them
