Exam 3

Question 1

Language development similarities across cultures

Answer 1

All languages are made up of the same basic units (i.e. all languages have nouns and verbs)
Basic course of language development (babbling, one-word stage, etc.) consistent across languages

Question 2

Language development differences among cultures

Answer 2

Different sounds in different languages
Early vocabulary differs across languages
Early grammar differs according to richness and regularity of morphology
Adults in different cultures talk to children differently- amount, infant directed speech, explicit instruction

Question 3

Language socialization

Answer 3

The process of learning how language is used in one’s culture
Different cultures emphasize different values through the use of different language practices
Members of different cultural groups may use language differently to convey similar ideas (directness, negativity, challenging adult authority)

Question 4

How are language and cognition related? Possibilities?

Answer 4

Language expresses independent cognition, language and cognition develop in tandem, language influences linguistic thought, language advances cognition, language shapes thought (Whorf hypothesis)

Question 5

Possibility 1: Language expresses independent cognition

Answer 5

Language and thought are independent systems
Cognition develops before/independently of language
Piaget: interactions with the world are the source of cognitive development; language comes later and allows us to express our thoughts
Fodor: conceptual understandings of the world are innate and make up the “language of thought” or mentalese- the process of language acquisition involves mapping words onto pre-existing concepts

Question 6

Possibility 2: Language and cognition develop in tandem

Answer 6

Words and concepts develop together and are mutually influential
Theory theory: the child constructs a conceptual understanding of the world based on continually changing/updating experience- as children acquire new concepts, they seek words for those concepts; as children learn new words, they seek the concepts that those words describe

Question 7

Evidence for language and cognition developing in tandem

Answer 7

Correspondence between children’s production of words and understanding of concepts- e.g., understanding of causality related to production of “uh-oh”
Labels as invitations for category formation- children who learn a name for a novel object or animal are more likely to notice the similarity between that object and other members of the same category than children who did not learn a name

Question 8

Possibility 3: Language influences linguistic thought only

Answer 8

Two types of thought (Slobin):
Nonlinguistic cognition (like Piaget or Fodor)- innate to all humans or acquired identically by speakers of all languages
Verbal thought- shaped by an individual's language

Question 9

Evidence for language influencing linguistic thought only

Answer 9

In English, if we use a pronoun for a person, we have to specify their sex- “my friend is having a party on Friday. s/he lives on Main St.”
In Hungarian, the same pronoun is used for males and females, so you don’t have to specify sex unless you want to- hungarian speakers often have difficulty learning the distinction between he and she
In Spanish, there are two different past tense forms- one for continuous actions of longer duration (e.g., “I lived in Mexico) and another for actions that happened at a single time point (e.g., “I was born in Mexico”)
In English, we only have one version of past tense- English speakers often have difficulty learning when to use each past tense form in Spanish (and other Romance languages)

Question 10

Possibility 4: Language advances cognition

Answer 10

Much of what we learn about the world (facts and conceptual understanding) is not learned through direct observation- history, religion and culture, chemistry and biology, geography
We have to learn from other people’s verbal testimony
Cultural differences in the information that is presented to children (and how it is presented) are related to differences in thinking about the world

Question 11

Possbility 5: Language shapes thought- the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Answer 11

Linguistic determinism: the language you speak determines the way you think about/view/conceptualize the world; the linguistic categories of your language determine the conceptual categories you recognize
Linguistic relativity: the language you speak affects the way you think about/view/conceptualize the world; the linguistic categories of your language influence thought

Question 12

Tests of the Whorf hypothesis

Answer 12

Early test: color perception

Modern tests: number, grammatical gender, spacial relations

Question 13

Early Whorf tests: color perception

Answer 13

General consensus: the number of color terms a language has does not influence speakers’ perception of color
The speaker’s ability to name the color does have some effect on their memory for a particular shade
This evidence against the influence of language on color perception was taken as initial evidence that Whorf was wrong

Question 14

Modern Whorf tests: number, grammatical gender, spacial relations

Answer 14

Recently, researchers have questioned whether color was the best domain to test the Whorf hypothesis- perception is biologically determined
Other domains of cognition may be more readily shaped by language- numbers, analogy, autobiographical memory, noun and verb meaning, grammatical gender, spatial relations, motion

Question 15

Possibility 5 1/2: Language is the medium for thought

Answer 15

Very similar to the traditional Whorf hypothesis
Says that some kinds of thought (i.e., higher cognition) require language to carry out
When language is used for these kinds of thought, the particular language used influences the way these thoughts are carried out

Question 16

Testing the Whorf hypothesis: number words and concepts

Answer 16

Humans and many other animals have an intrinsic ability to track quantities of three items or fewer- infants, moneys, pigeons, etc. can easily distinguish between 2 and 3, but have difficulty distinguishing 4 and 6
Learning number words seems to be necessary for learning number concepts- many children will point and recite number words before they really know how to count
Some languages spoken by small, non-industrialized tribes do not have number words that can represent all quantities- one, two, more than two; speakers of these languages do not seem to distinguish between quantities larger than three (e.g., 4 vs. 6)

Question 17

Testing the Whorf hypothesis: Grammatical gender

Answer 17

In many languages, nouns have grammatical gender
The grammatical gender system of a language does not seem to influence how speakers perceive nouns
Speakers provide more “feminine” adjectives to describe nouns with feminine gender and more “masculine” adjectives to describe nouns with masculine gender
Speakers rated pictures of feminine-noun objects as more similar to women, masculine-noun objects as more similar to men
Speakers assigned female voices to feminine-noun objects, male voices to masculine-noun objects

Question 18

Testing the Whorf hypothesis: Spacial relations

Answer 18

Some languages, like English, encode relative spatial relations- positions are described relative to their self or to other objects/locations- “in front of me,” “to the left of the bookshelf”
Other languages encode absolute spatial relations- positions are described using cardinal directions- “west of me,” “north of the bookshelf”
Speakers of absolute languages are better at cardinal directions than speakers of relative languages

Question 19

What conclusions do these modern studies of the Whorf hypothesis draw?

Answer 19

Speakers of absolute languages make more responses based on cardinal directions
Speakers of more relative languages make more responses based on relative position
But, Li and Gleitman found that English speakers made more absolute responses when they were outside. Their explanation: the differences found in behavior among speakers of different languages simply reflect their culture’s tendency to rely on external landmarks. It is not that the language is causing them to develop this tendency to use absolute frame of reference; it is that their way of life leads to both the use of absolute language and the tendency to use an absolute frame of reference

Question 20

Simultaneous bilingualism

Answer 20

Exposure to two languages from birth
Two main questions:
How do children differentiate between the two languages?
How does bilingual language development compare to monolingual language development?

Question 21

Sequential bilingualism

Answer 21

Exposure to one language from birth, then a second language is introduced later

Question 22

Language differentiation

Answer 22

How and when do bilingual language learners begin to distinguish between the two languages they hear?

Question 23

Fusion hypothesis

Answer 23

Children begin with one system for both languages and only later begin to separate the lexicon and the syntactic rules of each language

Question 24

Differentiation with autonomous development

Answer 24

Each language is a separate system from the beginning and the two do not influence each other

Question 25

Differentiation with interdependent development

Answer 25

Children differentiate between the two languages, but the two systems influence each other

Question 26

Phoneme discrimination

Answer 26

At 6 months, both English monolingual and French-English bilingual infants can differentiate French and English phonemes At 10 months, French-English bilinguals still discriminate phonemes in both languages, but English monolinguals can only do it for English This suggests that the timeline for developing phonetic systems is similar for monolinguals and bilinguals

Question 27

Evidence for differentiation of phonology: Language dominance

Answer 27

Amount of exposure to each language may also play a role French-English 14-17 month olds differ on their ability to differentiate between phoneme contrasts in each language (Werker, Weikum, & Yoshida, 2006) If one language is dominant, the intact may develop a perceptual system that is more sensitive to the contrasts of that language

Question 28

Evidence for differentiation of lexicon: Mutual exclusivity

Answer 28

Multilingual 17-18 month-olds are more likely than monolinguals to accept two names for the same thing (Byers-Heinlein & Werker, 2009)

Question 29

Evidence for differentiation of morphosyntax: Code-switching

Answer 29

The use of more than one language (or dialect or register) within the same conversation, or even within the same sentence, example "sometimes I'll start a sentence in English y termino en español" Code switching is not an indication of incompetence-adult bilinguals who are fully fluent in both languages often use code-switching when communicating with other proficient bilinguals Competent code-switchers follow certain rules of combining languages- the rules of code-switching are dependent on the grammatical rules of each language involved Code switching occurs in such a way as to avoid syntactic violations in either language Children tend to follow these same rules

Question 30

Evidence for differentiation of pragmatics: switching languages to be understood

Answer 30

Most children switched languages after a non-specific request (1-3) Most did not require that the experimenter explicitly ask them to switch languages (Comeau et. al, 2007)

Question 31

Effects of bilingualism

Answer 31

The evidence shows that bilingual children have a separate system for each language

Question 32

Vocabulary size and growth in each language

Answer 32

Bilingual children tend to know fewer words in each language than monolingual children know in their only language But bilingual children may know as many or more words across languages

Question 33

Gramatical (morphosyntactic) development in each language

Answer 33

Bilingual children reach grammatical milestones at the same time as monolingual children Early delays that have been shown in some studies disappear by age 10

Question 34

Metalinguistic awareness

Answer 34

Refers to the knowledge of the concept of language and awareness of how it works Bilingual children have been shown to have an advantage over monolinguals in metalinguistic tasks- syntax, phonology, pragmatics

Question 35

Cognitive flexibility

Answer 35

Evidence suggests a benefit of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility Symbol substitution task: In English this is called an airplane, but in this game its name is turtle. Can the turtle fly? How does it fly? In this game, the way we say I is to say macaroni. How do we say, "I am warm?" To be successful on this task, child must realize that words can be substituted for each other and be able to temporarily abandon the rules of English and substitute the rules of the game language

Question 36

Bilingualism and executive function

Answer 36

Carlson & Melzoff Compared native bilingual and monolingual kindergarteners on EF tasks- including DCCS, Simon Says, Gift delay Controlling for SES, verbal ability, and age, bilingual children performed significantly better on EF tasks involving conflict- no advantage for delay tasks This advantage has since been shown as early as 24 months

Question 37

Bilingual brain development

Answer 37

In native bilinguals, the same areas of the brain are used for processing both languages Bilinguals use the same brain areas for language as do monolinguals The two language systems are not represented in distinct physical areas However, individuals who acquire their second language later in childhood show differences from native bilinguals in processing syntax

Question 38

Sequential bilingualism

Answer 38

It is commonly believed that children can acquire a second language as quickly and easily as they acquire their first language In fact, second language acquisition is often quite different from first language acquisition- different input conditions, one linguistic system already in place

Question 39

Influences on second language development

Answer 39

Sociocultural environment Child characteristics Age of acquisition

Question 40

Sociocultural environment

Answer 40

Acceptance of social groups that speak different languages Learner's motivation to acquire a second language- instrumental (e.g., for work or school), integrative (to feel like part of the community)

Question 41

Child characteristics

Answer 41

Phonological memory, sociability, age of acquisition

Question 42

Age of acquisition

Answer 42

The age at which a child begins to learn a second language can effect immediate and long-term outcomes Older children initially learn more quickly than younger children Children who start learning L2 at an earlier age eventually master the language more fully than children who began learning at an older age- phonology, syntax Earlier acquisition is related to long-term mastery of the grammar and phonology of L2 Though younger children may lag behind older children when they first begin to acquire a new language Early exposure to a language may prepare an individual to produce the sounds (but not the grammar) of that language

Question 43

Age of acquisition influence on grammatical development

Answer 43

Participants listened to sentences of English and judged whether they were grammatical or ungrammatical, example "The farmer bought two pigs at the market" vs. "The farmer bought two pig at the market" Earlier acquisition was associated with better judgements of grammaticality Individuals who began learning between 3 and 7 performed as well as native English monolinguals There was a steady decline in performance as age of acquisition increased

Question 44

Age of acquisition influence on phonology

Answer 44

Earlier age of acquisition is also associated with better mastery of the phonology of L2 Adults who began learning their second language in early childhood may sound like native speakers, while those who began learning later are likely to have a noticeable non-native accent Early exposure to a language can benefit later phonological mastery of the language even if the language is not spoken in childhood

Question 45

Age of acquisition benefits of "childhood overhearing"

Answer 45

Childhood overhearing does NOT benefit later morphosyntax Childhood overhearing DOES benefit later pronunciation An example of the phonological benefit of overhearing in childhood: childhood overhearers demonstrated voice onset times for stop consonants that were no different from native pronunciations, while late L2 learners pronounced the consonants more like English consonants

Question 46

Bilingual education

Answer 46

Involves instruction in more than one language- e.g., science class taught in Spanish and English Not equivalent to standard language instruction- e.g., Spanish class where language is explicitly taught Different goals of bilingual instruction: Teach the majority language to a minority group Give the children the benefits of a second language

Question 47

Bilingual school

Answer 47

Instruction in more than one language

Question 48

Immersion school

Answer 48

Earlier immersion --> better proficiency | Immersion students performed equally well in math and science

Question 49

Standard language instruction

Answer 49

Class where one language is explicitly taught

Question 50

Phonology in the school years

Answer 50

By kindergarten, most children can produce most of the phonemes of their language- some more difficult sounds take a few more years to master But phonological skills continue to develop- phonological awareness, phonological memory, phonological representations and comprehension in a noisy environment Phonological skills are important because they are related to reading skill

Question 51

Accent and dialect

Answer 51

Young children acquire the accent/dialect they hear most commonly in the input (i.e., their caregiver's accent) When children get to school and start spending more time with peers, they may begin to sound more like their peers than their parents- regional dialect differences if the family has moved to a different area Sociolect of the child/adolescent's group of friends- valley girl speech emerged among teenagers Older children and teenagers may choose to use different dialects/sociolects in different situations- may use a particular accent to demonstrate group membership

Question 52

Phonological awareness in preschoolers

Answer 52

Can recognize words that start with the same sound Identify rhyming words Identify the sound that beans with a word (more difficulty with consonant cluster onsets)

Question 53

Phonological awareness in kindergartners

Answer 53

Can tap out the number of syllables in a word | Separate words into their component phonemes (phonemic awareness)- e.g., cat= "c" "a" "t"

Question 54

Phonological awareness

Answer 54

Preschoolers with more exposure to songs, nursery rhymes, and word games have better phonological awareness English-speaking children with better phonological awareness in preschool have more advanced reading skill in at age 6 Reading an alphabetic system is related to maintenance of phonological awareness in adulthood Illiterate adults show low levels of phonological awareness Adults who read a non-alphabetic written language also show low levels of phonological awareness

Question 55

Why is phonology important for academic achievement?

Answer 55

Because it is related to reading skill

Question 56

Vocabulary size

Answer 56

During the school years, children's vocabularies continue to grow rapidly

Question 57

Characteristics of words learned during the school years

Answer 57

Compared to words learned before school, words learned in elementary school are: Longer in length Less commonly used More specialized in meaning (less general) More formal in usage More internally complex (greater number of morphemes)

Question 58

Deriving new words

Answer 58

During the early school years, children's understanding of how words can be built from other words improves Derivation: adding morphemes to change the part of speech of a word- e.g., adjective + ly= adverb; adjective + ness = noun

Question 59

Forming compound words

Answer 59

``` Combining two words into one This ability also continues to improve into adulthood What would you call: A house that a black bird lives in? Someone who builds houses for birds? A bird who builds houses? ```

Question 60

Learning new words

Answer 60

Preschoolers: fast-mapping By age 5: quick incidental learning School years- direct instruction

Question 61

Quick incidental word learning

Answer 61

Learning new words in context without explicit labeling- books, movies, TV, conversations in the real world

Question 62

Grammar in school years

Answer 62

By the time they get to school, children have already mastered most of the morphology and syntax of their language

Question 63

Sentence length and complexity in the school years

Answer 63

Children's sentences become longer and more complex as they use complex syntax more frequently

Question 64

Combinations of sentences into longer utterances in the school years

Answer 64

Older children are better able to combine sentences into longer monologues or narratives- use grammatical structures to make their discourse easier to follow

Question 65

Conversational skill

Answer 65

Developments in conversational skill continue into the school years- more contingent responses, longer dialogue, more responses related to the attitudes/beliefs of the other speaker, rather than just responding to factual content Gender-typed conversation changes may reflect the different social orders in groups of boys and girls- boys play competitively in large, hierarchically-arranged groups; girls play non-competitively in small groups or pairs of similar social status

Question 66

Narrative skill

Answer 66

"Good" Western narratives, as judged by Western adults, have: Coherence: the events in the story are all related Cohesion: sentences are linked to each other Story grammar: setting- place and characters, episodes- events, problems, resolutions of problems

Question 67

Developmental change in narrative

Answer 67

Age 3-4: events are disconnected Age 5: more coherent and cohesive, but some events not resolved Age 6: can tell a good single-episode story By age 10, children can coordinate and resolve multiple events in a story with all of the major components

Question 68

Comprehension monitoring

Answer 68

Preschoolers are able to take the listener into consideration, but even 5-year-olds sometimes fail to provide adequate information- referential communication task, children are better at repairing their message to aid understanding if they realize on their own that the original communication failed 5-year-olds also tolerate insufficient communication from others- they are overconfident in their understanding, they don't realize that the message was insufficient

Question 69

Understanding nonliteral language

Answer 69

Understanding of metaphor/simile, idioms, irony and sarcasm improves across middle to late childhood and into adolescence

Question 70

Why is nonliteral language more difficult to understand and produce than literal language?

Answer 70

Requires inhibiting a literal interpretation in favor of a nonliteral interpretation (executive function skill) Often requires flexible alternation between literal and nonliteral meaning (executive function skill) Requires an understanding that the speaker intends a nonliteral interpretation (theory of mind skill)

Question 71

How does school influence language development?

Answer 71

Kindergartners' and first-graders' lexical and grammatical skills improve more when school is in session than during summer vacation

Question 72

Providing definitions

Answer 72

``` Children in Western schools improve in their ability to provide formal definitions of words The larger (superordinate) category containing the word being defined The characteristics that distinguish this word from others ```

Question 73

Input from teachers

Answer 73

Sophistication of vocabulary Use of complex sentences Analytic talk- providing further explanation and description Correcting the content of children's speech

Question 74

The language of school and cultural mismatch

Answer 74

Learning the language and culture of the Western formal school setting is particularly difficult for children from other cultures Known-answer question: teachers often ask questions that they themselves know the answer to (e.g., "what's 2+2?") American parents do this too: "Where's your nose?" Non-Western parents are less likely to do this, so the structure is unfamiliar to their children when they reach school If the child's narrative style differs from the teacher's, the teacher may have difficulty providing feedback or scaffolding

Question 75

How natural is reading?

Answer 75

Human invent oral (or signed) communication systems anytime they interact with each other In contrast, written language has only emerged a few times in human history- most languages in human history have no writing system Children do not require formal instruction to learn oral or signed language In contrast, most children do require formal instruction to learn how to read

Question 76

Relations between spoken and written language

Answer 76

Proficient oral language does not lead to literacy | But proficient oral language can aid reading skill

Question 77

Writing systems

Answer 77

Alphabets, syllabaries, logographies

Question 78

Alphabets

Answer 78

Based on the alphabetic principle: each written symbol (letter) corresponds to a single phoneme- English, Korean, Greek, Arabic, Urdu, Russian, etc.

Question 79

Syllabaries

Answer 79

Each symbol corresponds to a syllable- Japanese, Cherokee

Question 80

Logographies

Answer 80

Each symbol corresponds to a word or multiple words- Chinese

Question 81

Relations between phonology and reading

Answer 81

Phonological awareness in pre-readers is related to their later reading ability through 4th grade Phonological awareness is a predictor of dyslexia Letter knowledge (knowing the names and sounds of letters) is also related to later reading ability and predictive of dyslexia Phonological awareness is particularly important in the early stages of reading

Question 82

Relations between vocabulary and reading

Answer 82

Children with higher vocabularies tend to be better readers than children with lower vocabularies Vocabulary is particularly important for later stages of reading after the basics have been established- reading comprehension vs. "sounding out" words Mutual influence between vocabulary and reading ability- children with higher vocabularies read more, children who read more learn more words

Question 83

Understanding decontextualized language

Answer 83

Spoken language is often contextualized- we talk about things that are happening right here, right now Written language is almost always decontextualized- the context doesn't help you decode the meanings of the words Children's experience with decontextualized spoken language (narratives, being read to) is related to their early literacy

Question 84

Role of dialect in learning to read

Answer 84

Many ethnic and social groups speak dialects that differ from the "standard" version of the language- e.g., Southern American English, Black English, New York Latino English, Chicano English These dialects have systematic morphosyntax and phonology that differs in some respects from Standard American English Speakers of these dialects may have difficulty learning to read and write Standard American English because the grammar, phonology, and lexicon differ from their native dialect

Question 85

Emergent literacy

Answer 85

Basic skills related to literacy that predict later reading and writing proficiency: Phonological awareness, letter knowledge Knowledge about books and using books Understanding the function of reading/writing

Question 86

Early experiences related to literacy achievement

Answer 86

Language use in the home- longer discourse and richer vocabulary Family literacy- reading at home

Question 87

Learning the reading process

Answer 87

Reading consists of: Recognizing the printed words Comprehending the larger meaning

Question 88

Alphabetic principle

Answer 88

Early readers have to sound out every word | With reading experience, readers are able to recognize more words on sign and reading becomes more fluid and faster

Question 89

Matthew effect

Answer 89

Kids who start out as good readers read more and become better reader Kids who start out as poor readers read less and don't improve

Question 90

Individual differences

Answer 90

Low-SES children are more likely to have reading difficulty than higher-SES children- many potential sources for this difference Dyslexia

Question 91

Dyslexia

Answer 91

A specific reading difficulty; reading ability lower than expected for the child's IQ The most common view is that dyslexia stems from an underlying phonological deficit Some researchers believe that there is also a general deficit in processing speed

Question 92

Methods for teaching reading

Answer 92

Phonics method Whole word approach Whole language approach

Question 93

Phonics method

Answer 93

Teaches children to decode the written word Learn sound-letter correspondences first and build up to whole words Bottom-up approach

Question 94

Whole world approach

Answer 94

Teaches children "sight words" Learn whole words first and decode into individual sound-letter correspondence from there Top-down approach

Question 95

Whole language approach

Answer 95

Gives children exposure to written word through literature | Interesting books and life experiences will give children a desire to read

Question 96

Which method is the best?

Answer 96

Phonics method

Question 97

Characteristics of signed languages

Answer 97

Lexicon: signs Sub-lexical components (like phonemes/morphemes): hand shape, location, movement Grammar: combinations of signs, non-manual signs (facial expression) Sign languages have no correspondence to the spoken language of the culture- ASL has nothing in common with English

Question 98

Education for Deaf children: oral schools

Answer 98

Historically, Deaf schools have emphasized oral language skill only No signing allowed Goal: mastery of spoken language

Question 99

Education for Deaf children: total communication

Answer 99

Recently, the total communication approach has become more popular then the oralist approach Use sign language or gesture (e.g., cued speech) to supplement spoken language Goal: mastery of spoken language

Question 100

Education for Deaf children: bilingual-bicultural

Answer 100

Acquire sign language as a first language, then begin to learn to read/write and/or speak the spoken language Goal: full bilingualism and exposure to Deaf and hearing culture

Question 101

Deaf children of hearing parents

Answer 101

Deaf children born to hearing parents who don't sign receive no linguistic input from their parents Children create home sign systems to communicate with family members- not full language, but contain words and basic grammar Some have their first exposure to sign language in school Some (i.e., those who attend oralist schools) may never be exposed to fluent sign, or only in adulthood Age of acquisition of ASL is related to fluency and proficiency 30 years later

Question 102

Deaf children of Deaf parents

Answer 102

Children whose parents are native signers acquire sign language just like hearing children acquire spoken language- similar milestones and timecourse (slightly earlier first words), similar grammatical acquisition- overregularization, pronoun reversal Children whose parents are non-native (but fluent) signers still demonstrate typical language development- proficiency of parent input is related to children's language skill, but children can make use of imperfect input

Question 103

Cochlear implants

Answer 103

Device that is implanted inside the inner ear that converts sound waves into an electrical signal that stimulates the auditory nerve- results in simulated hearing, more channels --> better simulation of actual sound

Question 104

Cochlear implant influence on oral language

Answer 104

Deaf children who receive cochlear implants have better oral language skill than deaf children without cochlear implants Not as good as children born hearing

Question 105

Age of implantation effets

Answer 105

Age of implantation is related to oral language skill | Earlier implantation --> increased ability to interpret simulated sounds in a meaningful way

Question 106

The cochlear implant debate

Answer 106

Most hearing parents who have a child born deaf do not see a downside to cochlear implants Many members of the Deaf community think that cochlear implants are a threat to their culture- argue that deafness is not a disability that needs to be fixed, believe that deaf children should learn sign language and join the Deaf community Many deaf children of hearing parents feel torn between two cultures- not "true" members of the Deaf community because they are not native signers, can't fully participate in hearing culture because they can't hear

Question 107

Hearing children of Deaf parents (CODAs)

Answer 107

CODAs with native signing parents acquire sign language just like deaf children If both parents are deaf, CODAs may not receive spoken input from their caregivers- may receive spoken input from other family members, childcare, etc. Acquire spoken language once they enter school Very little research on CODA language development

Question 108

Language in blind children

Answer 108

Infants who are born blind have access to all of the same linguistic input as sighted infants

Question 109

Blindness: lack of access to nonverbal communication cues

Answer 109

Do not have access to eye gaze, pointing, joint attention

Question 110

Language milestones in blind children

Answer 110

Reach most language milestones at the same time as sighted children

Question 111

Phonological errors in blind children

Answer 111

Phonological errors for similar phonemes like /b/ vs. /m/

Question 112

Vocabulary in blind children

Answer 112

Fewer words for objects that can't be touched More words for objects associated with sounds Undergeneralization of nouns Later acquisition of "helping verbs" - probably related to fewer questions in parental input

Question 113

Holistic speech in blind children

Answer 113

More holistic, rather than analytic, speech | Didja, wanna

Question 114

Children with cognitive impairments

Answer 114

Studying language in children with cognitive impairments is useful for understanding the relation between language and general cognition

Question 115

Relations between language and cognition

Answer 115

If language is independent from other cognition, then it should be possible for a child to have a cognitive impairment that does not affect language If language is dependent on other cognition, then children's language should be affected to the same degree as other cognitive skills These questions are studied by comparing general IQ scores on language tasks

Question 116

Down syndrome: language skill relative to cognitive skill

Answer 116

Children with Down syndrome's language skills are more impaired than other cognitive skills- low language skill for IQ

Question 117

Phonology in children with Down syndrome

Answer 117

Difficulties with production that can last into adulthood

Question 118

Vocabulary in children with Down syndrome

Answer 118

Late to acquire first words, low productive vocabulary for mental age, comprehension in line with mental age

Question 119

Grammar in children with Down syndrome

Answer 119

Very slow development, follow the typical timecourse but much more slowly

Question 120

Communication in children with Down syndrome

Answer 120

Interested in communication from infancy Difficulties with secondary intersubjectivity Early conversational skill in childhood but difficulty in adulthood with more complex conversation and pragmatic rules

Question 121

Language skill relative to cognitive skill in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 121

Children with Williams syndrome have language that is less impaired than other cognitive skills

Question 122

Narratives in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 122

Can tell complex narratives

Question 123

Vocabulary in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 123

Can use advanced vocabulary | Still not on par with typically developing children of the same age, but relatively unimpaired for their mental age

Question 124

Production vs. comprehension in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 124

Production precedes comprehension Different timecourse than typically developing kids Don't always understand the words they produce

Question 125

Sociability in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 125

Very social and interested in conversation with others

Question 126

Memorization in children with Williams syndrome

Answer 126

Rely more on memory than understanding the rules of language and conversation

Question 127

Autism spectrum

Answer 127

Wide range of language and cognitive abilities Some autistic individuals never produce language or only produce echolalic speech- repeating what they have heard from another person

Question 128

How autistic language differs from typically developing children

Answer 128

``` Unusual prosodic patterns Differences in pitch and volume Similar vocabulary growth, but less vocabulary for mental-state words Most impaired in communicative and sociopragmatic development Little to no joint attention No pointing Pronoun reversal Difficulties with nonliteral language Limited range of conversational topics ```

Question 129

Specific language impairment

Answer 129

Children with language impairments that are not explained by hearing impairments, cognitive impairments, or autism

Question 130

Differences between children with SLI and typically-developing children

Answer 130

Tend to be late talkers Have smaller and slower growing vocabularies with very few verbs Particularly impaired in morphology and syntax

Question 131

Potential causes of SLI

Answer 131

Auditory processing- not supported by research Phonological memory Cognition- symbolic understanding, mental imagery, planning, reasoning, interference Language device impairment- "missing rule hypothesis" Language environment- not supported by research Neurobiology and genetics