exam 3 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
what was Thorndike known for and what were the predictions of what he would see
A
discrete operant trials for cats: hungry cats in puzzle boxes, hit latch, open door, get milk and measure the time to get the milk out
predictions on paper
2
Q
what are the three things going on in Thorndike’s experiment
A
1) stimulus (seeing the latch)
2) response (pressing the lever)
3) reward (the milk)
3
Q
what was Thorndike’s idea in the cat experiments
A
S -> R theory (reward is catalyst for reflex, the arrow)
reward “stamps in” the habit
4
Q
why did S -> R become so popular
A
S -> R makes S the cause and the cause comes before R (this makes sense in terms of other sciences, cause -> effect relationship)
S -> R needs no mental states or expectations of the future
5
Q
what are there three possible associations (memory contents) and in terms of the cat
A
- habit/reflex
1) S -> R: see latch -> hit it - expectations of future
2) S -> reward: see latch -> milk available
3) R -> reward: hit latch -> milk
6
Q
what are the two experiments that show some early evidence for expectations
A
1) changing reward value qualitatively
2) changing reward value quantitatively
7
Q
what is the changing reward value qualitatively experiment
A
Tinklepaugh chimp study
- gave monkeys a cup of food that they had to pull up a shade for
- he did a swap experiment where he swapped banana for lettuce (chimps like banana better)
- monkeys get pissed when there is no banana and they look everywhere for it and shriek
this shows that there is an expectation
8
Q
what is the changing reward value quantitatively experiment
A
straight runway in rats
GP1 1 pellet | run -> 16 pellets
GP2 16 pellets | run -> 16 pellets
GP3 64 pellets | run-> 16 pellets
S -> R says that the running speeds should eventually be the same because getting the same reward
show actual results on graph
this is called the “elation” and “depression” effect
9
Q
draw the early evidence experiment for R -> reward and explain
A
on paper
this is also a type of devaluation experiment (taking away the value of something)
- if S -> R then t2 is irrelevant, they will continue to do both, but the rats will adjust the amount of BP & CP
- this is evidence for the R -> reward association because theres no way the rat would know to tailor the amount of BP and CP without association between R -> reward
- still a little evidence for S -> R because they will BP and CP a little even because of nausea because they do have residual responding for something the rat doesn’t want
10
Q
draw the early evidence experiment for S -> reward and explain
A
on paper
- shows they formed the L -> sucrose association and the T -> pellets association (S -> reward)
- still a little evidence for S-> R because they’re not BP or CP exclusively
11
Q
so, what is the evidence for S -> R
A
1) you still BP a little for food you hate
2) the learning curve is gradual not abrupt
12
Q
what is an example in humans of habit/reflex (S->R) and expectation of future (R->reward and S->reward)
A
habit/reflex (S->R)
- automatic processing
- driving somewhere without awareness to familiar place
- makes you fast, efficient and not interfered with by conscious thought
expectation of future (R-> reward, S-> reward)
- controlled processing
- turning around and driving bak when you hear of snow coming
- makes you flexible and adaptable (conscious)
13
Q
what is an example of the habit/reflex and expectations in cigarette smoking in humans
A
habit/reflex
-pull a cig and smoke, there exist times when theres a cig in your mouth and you have no awareness of how it got there
expectation of future
-out of cigs, switch abruptly to conscious thinking “where do i go to get one?” “what do i do?”
14
Q
what is the difference between procedural memory and declarative memory
A
procedural: action sequences
declarative: descriptions of the action
15
Q
what kind of memory is sports training
A
- trying to promote procedural memory
- when coaches give you instructions and you try to implement them, it activates declarative memory (doesn’t work)
- only way to get better at sports is to practice them
16
Q
why does therapy for fear of public speaking tend to not work
A
S -> R, see people -> PANIC
- when you go and talk to a counselor, they give you strategies to practice
- this is all conscious and declarative
- so you still panic next time you go to public speak, doesn’t get rid of S -> R reflex
17
Q
explain “Those who can’t do teach”
A
- great players sometimes make terrible coaches because they act on procedural memory, don’t know how they’re doing it they just do it
- teachers and good coaches act on declarative memory, and can explain how they do it
18
Q
explain L -> BP -> food
A
1) S -> R: see bar -> hit
2) R -> reward: press bar -> get food
3) S -> reward: see bar -> food available
* *there is a fourth thing the rat stores**
L: BP -> food
no L: BP -> no food
an event is associated with an association between two other things (an association within an association)
called: hierarchical association
19
Q
what is a hierarchical association
A
a stimulus is associated with an association between two things
20
Q
what is a hierarchical association in real life
A
McDonalds: flip burger -> $
kitchen: flip burger -> no $
McDonalds is associated with the flip burger get money association
21
Q
explain why the other three associations cannot explain:
L: BP->pel, CP-> suc | pel-> nausea | L: BP < CP
T: BP->suc, CP-> pel | pel-> nausea | T: BP > CP
A
1) S->R: if it was this, they would be BP and CP the same because its just a habit
2) R-> reward: thinks BP and CP = both rewards so BP and CP are done the same because both responses are equally associated with both rewards
3) S -> reward: thinks L & T = both rewards so would BP and CP the same because both stimuli are equally associated with both rewards
what is right:
“L -> (BP -> pel)” and “L -> (CP -> suc)”
“T -> (BP -> suc)” and “T -> (CP -> pel)”
the stimulus tells you what response leads to what reward S -> (R -> reward)
22
Q
so what can one learning event do
A
potentially creates 4 different memory contents in different locations
this is more complicated, memory can be stored in dozens of different places
23
Q
what is evidence that memory is all over the brain in different locations
A
associative visual agnosia (lack of knowledge) in stroke victims
24
Q
what is the associative visual agnosia study (do they get these questions right or wrong)
A
1) copy this picture (anchor) YES
2) ask “whats an anchor?” YES
response: big hunk of metal, makes ship stay still
3) please say “anchor” YES
response: “anchor”
4) here’s a picture (anchor) what is it? NO
5) please draw an anchor NO
1) says theres no problem with visual processing; so this cannot explain 4
2) says theres no problem with language or knowledge; but this does not explain 5
3) says theres no pronunciation issue; but this does not explain 4
1) says there’s not a problem with motor performance, but this does not explain 5
- *they are missing the association between vision and language/knowledge**
- *all of the individual elements are intact, the only thing thats broken is the association between them**
- *neuroscience is such a mess because knowledge is so broken up in the brain**
25
what are the two different kinds of memory
habit, procedural, automatic
vs.
expectation, declarative, controlled
26
what is the stroop effect
an example of both kinds of memory
reading the colors of a random group of letters
then read the colors of letters that spell out different colors
-this is harder and people say it slower because reading is automatic, you cannot turn it off
-the controlled part is trying to only see the color of the letters
27
what things are learned and stored in different parts of the brain
BP -> food
1) S -> R
2) R -> reward
3) S -> reward
4) S -> (R -> reward)
28
what is the best tactic for learning
- depends on what memory content you're focusing on
| - building a habit (S -> R) you need repetition, but in other situations you need goal-oriented learning
29
why does neuroscience have a long way to go
we have nothing in neuroscience that is as complex as we do in animal studies
30
what are the three conditions for learning in animals v humans
animal and human fields ask same questions but in different ways
1) Animals: what are the conditions for learning?
Humans: encoding
2) Animals: what are the contents of memory?
Humans: memory storage systems (paid attention to more in humans because you can ask them)
3) Animals: how does memory get expressed in behavior?
Humans: retrieval
31
so what are the three questions about memory in humans
1) encoding
2) memory storage systems
3) retrieval
32
what is the information processing framework in humans
on paper
33
what is some evidence that working memory (STM) is different than LTM
1) storage capacity
- working memory holds less info than LTM (infinite)
ex. digit STM: listening to list of numbers and recalling them immediately after
- people can do 5-9 numbers
- the magic number of working memory is 7 +/- 2 (this is why local phone numbers are 7 digits long, people can hold this many units of information)
- you can combine things so you can hold more in memory (chunking) - this is association formation
34
what are the two views of working memory
1) traditional approach: working memory is a place (draw on paper)
2) contemporary view: working memory is a process, activation: lights up certain parts of memory at a time (draw on paper)
35
what is evidence for an inner voice in working memory
L R (E) ....
mistakes?
1) sound alike: C !!!YES!!
-look alike: F
2) word length effect
written length and pronunciation time determine how many items you can hold
ex. words that are matched for # of letters/syllables but differ in pronunciation times
2 letters, 2 syllables:
bishops (easier) harpoons (harder and longer to say)
**you can hold more words like bishops in working memory**
36
why do kids in Wales have shorter working memory
their language has longer words
37
what is evidence for a visual format in working memory
show two sets of blocks and participants have to say if theyre the same set of blocks just flipped or a different set of blocks (only look at trails that are the same)
show graph on paper
results: the more rotation of blocks, the longer it takes you to say yes
38
what is Aphantasia
lack of visual images inside head
39
draw working memory on paper
on paper
40
do rats have working memory for inner spatial map
ex. 8 arm radial maze where rat stands on central platform, when rat eats the food is gone and rat should know where the food is and isn't because of memory (put rat in maze and allow 8 choices) rats complete this successfully
possible strategies:
1) always go clockwise
2) smell the food
3) smell themselves, where they've been
4) spatial memory
how to rule out first three:
1) pick up rat after choice, put him down randomly at the start, or just watch them
2+3) cover up smell
why 4 is right:
4) rats store a mental maze "cognitive map", look at things in room to see what arms they've been down before (when you rotate the maze the rats fail)
41
what is the retention length of cognitive map in rats
- put the rat in the 8 arm maze and allow the rat to make 4 choices
- remove from maze and return to cage and wait
- put back in maze and allow 4 more choices
results:
-rats show perfect performance for up to four hours
**these studies have also been used to analyze Alzheimers and stroke damage**
42
what are the different names for S -> R memory
```
habit/reflex
automatic
procedural
nonconscious
implicit
familiarity
```
43
what are the different names for S -> reward and R -> reward
```
expectation
controlled
declarative
conscious
explicit
source
```
44
what is the difference between anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia
anterograde: memory loss for information post-injury (more common)
retrograde: memory loss for information pre-injury (rarer)
45
what was the previous belief about anterograde amnesia
LTM and retrieval are both working, working memory is also intact, but encoding is broken
this is wrong
46
draw diagram of working memory and explain anterograde amnesia
on paper
when people are given a city, color and car and asked what they were given the explicit memory cannot retrieve it
but
the implicit memory is still intact (ask to give the first color, car and city that come to mine) and this is the right answers
***anterograde amnesia damages explicit memory, but not implicit***
47
what is an anterograde amnesia example with the Tower of Hanoi puzzle
two results:
1) performance improves
2) no conscious memory of practice or rule **there is a split between implicit and explicit memory** and the brain damage makes this apparent
48
what does Clive Wearing show us
he has "no" memory after injury, his wife has been there for many years but if he had no memory when she walked in (looking old) he would be surprised, but he still does remember her
shows he has some form of procedural memory
49
explain the list of word experiment with healthy subjects and subjects with amnesia
- give list of words to memorize, words are 6 letters long with three letters consistent with other words (def _ _ _)
- ex. define
- 2 memory tests with healthy patients and patients with amnesia
1) explicit test: def _ _ _ "please fill in the word from your list"
2) implicit test: def _ _ _ "please fill in first word that pops into mind"
results:
- healthy subjects fill in define for both
- patients with amnesia do not do as well on the explicit test (cannot fill in word from list), but they do just as well as healthy subjects on the implicit test
50
explain the word experiment with just healthy subjects
- give list, give instructions
- still explicit and implicit tests
- patients then put in FMRI
results: all patients put "define" in both tests, so no difference in what you type in
- BUT, different parts of brain light up when the different tests are given
shows that LTM has two systems (implicit and explicit)
51
explain source v familiarity
source: know where info/answer is coming from (short answer questions)
familiarity: answer feels right, don't know where the info is coming from (some multiple choice questions)
52
explain the video game driving study
```
wind entropy (unexpected wind, low - high) vs. cognitive load (external distraction, none to hard math)
low wind entropy= easy driving conditions
high wind entropy= hard driving conditions, need conscious driving effort
```
measuring: how straight in lane
results:
- when low wind entropy, driving gets better with higher cognitive load
- when high wind entropy, driving gets worse with higher cognitive load
53
what things show how implicit memories lack source information
1) famous in 24 hours
2) illusion of truth
3) source confusion
4) 8 word memorization experiment
5) gut intuitions
54
what is the famous in 24 hours study
a. give people a list of random names to pronounce
b. ask people to rate names for level of famousness
- totally famous: Albert Einstein
- sort of famous; Buzz Aldrin
- never heard of, on list: Sam Rabinowitz
- never heard of, not on list: Clara Herstein
c. rate
1) immediately after pronunciation list results (source, just happened):
- name on previous list and name not on previous list that you've never heard of are rated non famous
2) 24 hours later results (familiarity):
- people whose names you pronounced the day before are rated more famous
why?
pronunciation of names are stored as implicit memories 24 hours later, don't remember the source of information but the name looks familiar so rated as more famous
55
what is the illusion of truth study
people given statements to rate for "interestingness", told some were true and some were false
ex.
Dolphins sleep one hemisphere at a time (true)
Bats are actually warmblooded birds (false)
24 hours later, given statements to rate for truth- some new and some previous
results:
previous statements are rated more likely to be true than new statements regardless of what you were told the day before
statements that are familiar are believed to be more true
this related to politics because if things are repeated and false people will throw out source and believe it to be true because of familiarity
56
what is the source confusion in eyewitness testimony study
a. participants watch a video of a staged crime
b. show a "mug book" of possible perpetrators, none were in the film (and people will say that none were in the film)
c. next day, participants back for a lineup with 6 people including person from film and one from "mug book"
results:
- person from "mug book" chosen 29% of the time because of familiarity
- police now cannot show a list of possible subjects before they present a lineup because of familiarity
57
what is the 8 word memorization experiment
1) give list of 8 easy words to memorize (tiger, chair, etc) and ask subject to write them down after a minute, will get most right
2) give subjects world scrambles (anagrams) to unscramble, half from previous list, half not and time them
3) people are faster with words they just saw on the list
4) ask subjects "you were faster with some words, why?"
-they should say because it was on list or they don't know
but, they give random reasons like some had more vowels etc.
because the task is so trivial words do not stay in your source memory but they still exist in familiarity and thats why they can be unscrambled sooner
58
explain gut intuitions
the lack of source (they are generated by familiarity) should make you skeptical about gut intuitions
59
what is the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and how does it show explicit v. implicit attitudes
draw on paper
- computer screen with words in the middle
- you are categorizing things in one category or another by hitting buttons
- measure reaction time / item and throw out trials where you make a mistake
60
what is the IAT example with insects and flowers
draw on paper
looking to see if have a pre held negative bias towards insects
if you have the belief that insect = negative, you'll be faster in 3 and slower in 5 (this is a millisecond difference)
61
what is the IAT example with Japanese-American College Students and Korean-American College Students
Koreans have resentment towards Japanese and Japanese think they're above Korean
1) gave all students a questionnaire about their "ethnic immersion"
2) explicit ratings of terms "Korean" and "Japanese" in scales
- 3 dishonest -------- honest 3
- 3 ugly ------------ beautiful 3
3) given typical IAT with Korean names and Japanese names and positive negative on sides of screen
4) measure reaction times
results:
Korean American students IAT faster with Korean-Positive and Japanese-Negative
Japanese American students IAT faster with Japanese-Positive and Korean-Negative
no differences on the explicit shows implicit does not equal explicit
62
why were the results the way they were in IAT example with Japanese-American College Students and Korean-American College Students
1) Implicit= truth, explicit =social demand
2) explicit=truth, implicit=knowledge of stereotype
3) implicit = truth, explicit =truth (two different attitudes in different parts of brain)
4) explicit = social demand, implicit = knowledge of stereotype, neither is real attitude
63
how do we know if self-reported explicit attitudes or IAT produced implicit attitudes are real
we want measurement of behavior, but this is very hard to do
64
what is the problem with the Japanese-Korean Study
- IAT bias not related to explicit attitude
- had an ethnic immersion questionnaire and score (this is correlated with IAT score, more immersion, more IAT bias, but not with explicit attitude)
problem: this is not behavior, the ethnic immersion score is just another questionnaire (the same as explicit questionnaire)
65
explain the cigarette smoker trying to quit in terms of treatment implication of implicit/explicit attitude idea
ex. cigarette smoker trying to quit
explicit: smoking = cancer, heart disease, $
implicit: smoking = relaxing and alertness
treatment (explicit):
- give tactics for coping with craving
- tactics taught in counseling offices and towards explicit memory
problems:
- not in real world context
- distractions in real world not in counseling
- counseling targets explicit memory, not implicit
66
how do you use behavior to validate implicit attitudes (nonconscious behavior priming)
1) expose people to stimuli (images, words, places) intended to activate an implicit attitude
2) measure a behavior thought to be linked to the attitude
3) debrief subjects; what was the study about?
67
what is an example of a nonconscious behavior priming study
ex. Females are bad at math (hypothesized implicit attitude) Asians are good at math
group of Asian female college students
GP1: female oriented questions
GP2: Asian oriented questions
GP3: neutral questions
**gave all groups a math test**
results:
GP2 > GP3 > GP1
behavior, but no proof the implicit behavior was activated
68
explain emotional state words coming from physical descriptions
```
warm= safe, away from danger, good feelings
cold= in danger, no protection, bad feelings
```
ex. students invited for study, experimenter meets them in lobby and says "let's do some paperwork, can you hold my coffee?"
GP1: hot coffee, questionnaires including ?'s about family members, shows more emotional warmth
GP2: iced coffee, questionnaires including ?'s about family members, shows less emotional warmth
69
explain the plotting items on graph study
- students told they're pilot testing new items for GRE/SAT
- asked to plot points on a graph (3,2) (6,8) (show on paper)
- then given questionnaires having to do with relationships and closeness to others
- GP1 (3,2) says they're closer to family and friends
problem: these are still surveys not actual behavior, (prime attitudes)
70
what is the priming "rude/polite" study that primes behavior
-subjects given scrambled sentences to unscramble (20 sentences, 5 words each)
GP1: 10-15 rudeness related words (ex. bother, disturb, intrude), 60% interrupt in 10 minutes
GP2: 10-15 politeness related words (ex. respect, honor, gracious), fewer than 20% interrupt
when done unscrambling everyone goes to get experimenter and experimenter is talking to someone else, look to see how long it takes to interrupt
71
draw the stimulus to LTM chain that we will be focusing on in outline 10
on paper
72
what is the "participants given scrambled sentences (verbal task)" that primes behavior
-20 sentences, 5 words each
GP1: "elderly", conservative, cautious words
GP2: "neutral" words
at the end of the study subjects dismissed to walk down hall to elevator, measure walking speed
GP1 walks slower
73
what is the bowling study that primes behavior
positive bowling words primed people to do better and worse
74
what is the self disclosure study that primes behavior
scrambled sentences with words like cancel and open
results: people who got disclosure words like "open" wrote double the amount of words about themselves than people who got non-disclosure words
75
what is early selection v late selection
early selection: the filter that blocks information from going into working memory (a pre-set filter; squirrels, trees, etc.)
late selection: model that says selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after the info in the message has been analyzed for meaning, everything out there gets into your memory and you pull out the things that matter to you
76
what is evidence for early selection
dichotic listening
- subjects given headphones with different info sent to each ear and instructed to listen to each ear
- right ear: word list
- left ear: story (attend to left)
- people do a shadow task (repeat info in attended ear aloud)
- stop the recording and ask what was said in right ear
results: people can't identify words, sex of speaker or language
77
what is evidence for late selection
the "cocktail party" effect
- tune out other conversation but notice your name
- this is late selection and an implicit meaning scan in LTM
- LTM brings attention to things and pushes it to working memory
78
what is another example of evidence for late selection (dichotic listening task)
-right eat: ambiguous sentence (attended to ear)
ex. "the police officer tried to stop drinking"
"the girls threw stones at the bank" (two meanings)
-left ear: words related to sentences (alcoholic, teens)
results: people who get "alcoholic" are more likely to say to police officer was an alcoholic
- sentences interpreted based on words in ear, evidence for late selection
79
what is another example of evidence for late selection (area of emotional concern)
- cigs, food, depression (smokers notice cigarette butts on the ground non-smokers do not)
- attention is directed towards these things, you are more likely to notice things significant to you
predicts:
- differential attention to area of concern/significance
- opposite of Freud and regression
- you notice "conditioned stimuli" move
80
draw the visual attentional bias (dot probe task) for cigarette smokers and explain
on computer screen
pack of cigs x pack of cards (these flash on screen for less than a second) then...
dot flashes on either side of the screen and you hit a key as to where the dot is
try to see if cigarettes have more visual pull, you hit the dot faster
results: reaction time when probe replaces the item of interested is shorter than the reaction time when probe replaces neutral item (prediction was right)
81
what is the attention bias score and compare it for current smokers, past smokers and non smokers in the dot probe task
attention bias score: reaction time when probe replaces neutral item - reaction time when probe replaces item of interest
bias scores:
current smokers: 22
past smokers: 10
non smokers: 7
82
what could attention bias score be used for
1) to measure treatment outcome
2) to predict likelihood of relapse
3) also used for social anxiety and depression (use neutral face and negative face)
83
what is the attention bias modification (ABM) for social anxiety
neutral face x disgust face
E x F
subjects assigned to 2 groups
1) attention training- letter replaces neutral face 80% of the time (trying to move attention to neutral face, training a habit)
2) placebo training- letter replaces disgust face 50% of the time
over 1000 trials, no one knew what group they were in
results: at end, clinician anxiety does diagnostic interview for clinical status of social anxiety (DSM)
- in attention retraining group: 64% no longer receive diagnosis
- in placebo group: 25% no longer receive diagnosis because of other treatment
84
what are the results of the attention bias modification with 13-17 year olds with social anxiety
placebo: 5% show improvement
| attention training: 52% show improvement
85
what is the ABM with fear of public speaking
- ABM with contempt and neutral faces
- ABM v. placebo training
- had people give a public speech, they were surprised and participants didnt know it was coming
- blinded raters rated talk quality and people with the ABM scored higher
86
what is the ABM with depression
3 pairs:
sad v. neutral
angry v. neutral
happy v. neutral
-57 people who had been successfully treated for depression (in remission) and 103 never depressed
-measures: RT bias score and eye tracking
results:
- for RT: remission group shows bias for sad and angry but not happy
- for eye tracking: depression group shows longer gaze to angry
- amount of time looking at angry faces in depressed group predicts likelihood of future depression
87
what is a stroop task as a measure of clinical outcome
red, blue, green (written in different colors and say color of word) color words interfere with naming ink colors
emotional stroop task (do words with emotional content interfere more with your color naming?)
88
what is the Vietnam Combat Vets with or without diagnosis of PTSD
- 5 troop cards with 64 words printed in different colors, call out color of the ink
1) control card: 00000 00000 (just with colors, see how long it takes to name colors)
2) neutral card: FINGER INPUT
3) positive card: LOVE LOYAL
4) OCD card: URINE FECES
5) PTSD card: BODYBAG FIREFIGHT
each card compared to control card
bias score= time/item on word card - time/item on control card
results: vets with PTSD showed a lot more bias towards the PTSD cards (spent more time looking at PTSD card) show graph on paper
89
what is the study on insomnia in college students
sleep anxiety word x matched neutral word
ex. fatigue x tables
then screen of dots
treatment: dots replace neutral word 100% of the time
control: dots replace 50/50
results: cut amount of time to go to sleep almost in half and subjects didnt know what days they were getting which treatment
90
so, in conclusion, what does the emotional stroop do
emotional words of personal significance interfere with ink color naming more than other words
- done with depression, anxiety, smoking, phobias, OCD, eating disorders
- measures ability to suppress meaning of word, the more it means to you the hardest it is to suppress it
91
what is evidence that level of stroop interference = the degree of emotional concern
ex. smokers
- 12 hours abstinent: more interference compared to "just smoked"
ex. eating disorders
- anorexics show more food word interference compared to control subjects
- controls who have fasted show food word interference
ex. alcohol dependence
- stroop interference for alcohol words
- worse if room has ads/ images
92
can stoop interference be used as a treatment outcome?
measure: does the stroop correspond to behavior in the real world? (self reports don't correspond to behavior)
ex. spider phobias
GP1- spider stroop- treatment (desensitization)- spider stroop
GP2- spider stroop- no treatment- spider stroop
results: in GP1 spider words interfere with the color naming less
ex. spice phobias
spider phobics- spider stroop- cognitive behaviora treatment- spider stroop and spider behavior measure
the spider measure of behavior is a human and a spider under glass on the table and the human pulls the spider toward himself until cant stand it anymore
results: significantly correlated less stroop interference = closer to spider
93
what is encoding
working memory -----(encoding)--> LTM
94
what are the two rehearsal strategies
1) maintenance (passive)
| 2) elaborate (active)
95
what is the difference between maintenance and elaborate rehearsal
- maintenance rehearsal is repetition (useful for implicit memories like playing sports)
- elaborate rehearsal is for explicit memories (maintenance rehearsal is not good for this)
96
what is an example that shows passive repetition is ineffective for explicit memory
```
in class we got asked questions about money and what is on the different bills
money passes through our lives daily, but makes no impression on us
```
97
what is another example that shows passive repetition is ineffective for explicit memory (words)
-see a series of words, always remember the last one that started with "B"
1 rehearsal unit: bread acorn batter
5 rehearsal units: bread lather house dog class tree batter
-at end of the study write down as many "B" words as you can
results: no relationship between likelihood of recall and # of times you rehearse it (shows repetition does not impact explicit memory
98
what is encoding in explicit memory
-NOT maintenance rehearsal
- IS elaborative rehearsal
- looking for meaning (storyline or plot) not about memorizing info line by line
- active organization (chunking)
- associations-provide pathways to memory
99
so why were we able to memorize all the features of a dollar bill after Robbins only showed us once?
- encoding in explicit memory
1) Robbins gave us meaning of what is on the bills
2) we made associations of specific things on the bill
100
what is important when encoding into explicit LTM
strategy is everything; not intention or repetition
101
what is an example that shows "strategy is everything" when encoding in explicit LTM
```
Depth of Processing Study
-press keys on computer
GP1: HOUSE mouse - same case? y/n
GP2: HOUSE mouse - rhyme? y/n
GP3: HOUSE mouse - synonyms? y/n
```
end of study: surprise! please write down as many words as you can remember
- if intention is what mattered all groups would be the same
but. ...
- GP3 is the best because synonyms force someone to think of the meaning of words
- GP1 remembers the fewest because just looking at case, where in GP2 you do have to read the words to yourself
**there is a second version of this study where its the same thing, but groups are given intention (instructions at beginning to try and remember the words). the results are still the same which shows that intention doesn't matter**
102
explain the "change word in sentence and see if you notice" study
- give subjects a series of sentences and say try to remember
- recognition test: "heres a list of sentences; check y/n- was it on your list?"
* *if you are just memorizing sentences than any word change you should notice the same** but, words changes are only noticed if the sentence meaning changed because encoding is not repetition
ex. (training) Three turtles resting on a floating log and a fish swam beneath (them).
(test) Three turtles rested on a floating log and a fish swam beneath (it).
results: say they saw the sentence in test because meaning doesn't change, turtles still on top
ex. (training) Three turtles rested beside a floating log and a fish swam beneath (them).
(test) Three turtles rested beside a floating log and a fish swam beneath (it).
results: say they didnt see the sentence in test because meaning changed
103
explain the "given sentences, try and remember the following sentences" study
- sentence set of 4 base sentences (1 idea each)
1) the ants were in the kitchen
2) the jelly was on the table
3) the jelly was sweet
4) the ants ate the jelly
- sentences could also be 2 ideas
1) the sweet jelly was on the table
- sentences could also be 3 ideas
1) the ants ate the sweet jelly on the table
- NEVER show sentences as 4 ideas
-at the end recognition test with 1,2,3,4 idea sentences
results: people are more likely to recognize sentences with 4 ideas (that encompass all the ideas of the set even though they've never been seen before)
4>3>2>1
104
explain the "comparing explicit and implicit encoding" study
```
implicit = repetition
explicit = meaning
```
GP1 xxxx COLD
GP2 HOT COLD
GP3 HOT ????
-GP1 and GP2 directed to say second word aloud, GP3 directed to say opposite of first word aloud
-in each group, half get one test and half get another
1/2 get standard recognition: COLD- was it on your list (explicit test)?
-GP3 is better at standard recognition because they are focusing on meaning GP3>GP2>GP1
other half gets perceptual identification task: flash word on screen quickly and ask "what was the word?"
- implicit, habit: words on previous list help your recognition because they are floating around head
- GP1 does best because they've seen the word before (word is in memory) helps them process it faster GP1>GP2>GP3
**different kind of encoding depends on task**
105
what is a retrieval from LTM theme
retrieval depends on activating associative pathways (state context dependent retrieval)
idea: if memories are associative you'll retrieve best if in same context or state as encoding
106
what is a retrieval cue
any event or stimulus that will prompt a memory and aid in retrieval
107
show the cell for generic state context dependent retrieval
on paper
108
show the state context dependent example for physical context
on paper
109
show and explain the state context dependent example for test taking
problem with taking tests: study at home and test at school, study laying down and test standing up, study with music and test in silence etc
```
ex. learn list of 80 words and then recall words a day later
GP1: train in basement class and test in basement class
GP2: train in basement class and test in sound proof lab cubicle
GP3: train in basement class, given instructions "close your eyes and imagine the basement class from yesterday", test in sound proof lab cubicle
```
results:
GP1: 18 words
GP2: 12 words
GP3: 17 words
GP1 and GP3 are not statistically different
110
explain the state context dependent example for perceptual experiences
- subjects fill out daily pain logs and record pain meds
- at end of week, subjects asked at PT visit to estimate average pain, peak pain, number of meds
- subjects assigned to two groups
1) asked at beginning of visit (in pain)
2) asked at end of visit (less pain)
results:
- GP1 more accurate
- GP2 systematically underestimate pain levels and pills taken
111
explain the state context dependent example for states of consciousness
-anxiety doesn't prevent retrieval, but being relaxed while studying v. being anxious while testing does
show cell subjects remembering a list of words while happy v. sad on paper
112
explain the state context dependent example for altered states of consciousness
- drugs and alcohol are not bad for memory, you just cant remember things unless you're back in that state
- subjects are given word list and then recognition test (what words were on list?) and experimenters measure # of errors
show cell of sober v. drunk results on paper
113
show the state context dependent example for being straight v stoned
- subjects given list of words and then asked to recall
- measure % recalled
show cell of results on paper
-easier in your head to remember the straight or sober state, so do better with recall
114
what is a real world application of state context dependent example
ADHD meds, kids are eventually weened off of them; will this impact ability to recall school info?
115
what is a state context dependent memory for teaching meaning v. rhyme
-subjects given sentences with a missing word given possibility-asked does it fit?
```
training:
-meaning: the ______ traveled 65 mph down the track
train? yes
-rhyme: does ______ rhyme with legal?
beagle? yes
```
test:
- 1/2 get standard recognition (meaning) test, which words were on your list?
- 1/2 get rhyming recognition, which of the following rhymes with a word you saw?
show cell of results on paper
116
what is forgetting and its two possibilities
1) you don't have the right retrieval cues
| 2) retrieval cues take you down wrong path to a different memory
117
explain retrieval and our eyes and how it relates to memory
- retrieval is reconstructive based on mental schemas (storylines or scripts)
- our eye has a blindspot so we could see a blindspot, but we don't because our brain fills in the rest of info based on everything else (this is similar to memory)
- memory system has a lot of blank spots, but it fills them in
- you have some real memories, some fake and theyre indistinguishable
118
what are the 3 central ideas of retrieval
1) details that are most schema consistent are most likely to be remembered
2) details that are scheme inconsistent are most likely to be forgotten
3) details that didnt happen that are schema consistent will be inserted
119
what is an example of retrieval we did in class
- story in class, one title about space to half of the class and one title about peace march
- one sentence related to space "landing was soft and no special suits had to be worn"
- the rest was related to peace march
results of peoples retrieval:
talking about landing= 51% of space titles talked about the landing, only 14% of march titles
talking about space suits or safe air= 38% of space titles talked about this, 2% of march titles talked about this
talking about nice weather/being dressed up= 21% of march titles talked about this, 2% of space titles talked about this
120
why cant people remember "two young men from Egulac"
because theres no meaning that comes along with Egulac, even when its clearly pronounced
121
what is Elizabeth Loftus eyewitness memory experiment
- false memory reconstruction
- basic study: video shows two cars colliding at an intersection
1) 20 mins later: first round of questions
2) 1 or 2 weeks later: follow up questions
- theme: implicit, non conscious schemas generate false details
20 min:
Q: how fast was the red card going when it...
GP1: bumped the blue car
GP2: smashed the blue car
results: GP1 gives 32 mph, GP2 gives 41 mph
1 week:
Q: was there broken glass? (there wasn't)
results: GP1 14% say yes, GP2 32% say yes
bumped: schema (fender bender) no broken glass
smashed: schema (bad accident) with broken glass
122
what is a continuation of Elizabeth Loftus eyewitness memory experiment
GP1: did you see school children get on the school bus?
GP2: did you see school children get on a school bus?
- there was no children, was no school bus
- "the" implies there was a school bus
```
20 min:
everyone says no
1 week:
"describe the accident"
-4x more subjects in "the" condition falsely insert a school bus
```
confidence ratings don't separate true from inserted details
123
what is another example of retrieval but with headaches
GP1: do you get headaches frequently and how often?
GP2: do you get headaches occasionally and how often?
GP1: 2.2 a week
GP2: 0.7 a week
124
what is another retrieval example but with car accidents again
a red Datsun makes a turn and hits a pedestrian
GP1: sees yield sign at intersection
GP2: sees stop sign at intersection
-both groups asked: "did another car pass the Datsun when it approached the yield/stop sign?" (one or other)
-questions for both groups given consistent signs or inconsistent signs in the question 1/2 of the time
```
results (ask what sign was in video):
20 min
consistent: 75% correct about sign
inconsistent: 40% correct about sign
2 weeks later:
inconsistent: 20% correct
**most people report the sign in the question not the actual sign in the video**
```
125
show if the original memory is still there using the car experiment?
1) same experiment as before showing stop or yield
- implant "stop" or "yield" (inconsistent or consistent)
- ask: stop, yield or one way?
* *when subjects get it wrong you tell them they are wrong and ask them to try again**
results: they choose 50/50 between sign seen and one way (suggests when we implant information it replaces the old information)
2) same study, 2 signs consistent or inconsistent
- subjects told "the experimenter may have misled you by mentioning the wrong sign in a previous question. so be careful. do you think this happened to you?"
results: in the inconsistent condition 90% of subjects say no
3) same as #2 but the subjects are given money for the correct memory (incentive) and it makes no difference
all of this shows that there is no evidence the original memory is still there
126
what are two applications to "flashbulb" memories
1) 1986 Challenger explosion
- collected memories within 24 hours, then reinterviewed people 3 years later (most people describe their memories as "vivid"
- subjects given an accuracy score of 0-7 by raters
results: mean = 2.95 on scale (22 of 44 had scores of 2 or below)
2) 9/11, subjects given their original handwritten recollection of memories 24 hours after it happened
- people say that the original is BS because they actually don't remember what happened
- George Bush also has many different recounts of 9/11 and this was the moment that defined his presidency
127
explain lies and consistency
lies are more consistent than truth, because actual memory is not inconsistent
when someone is lying they'll work hard to make sure their story is consistent because thats how they think memory works
128
what are some implications for memory retrieval under hypnosis
state dependent memory says that hypnosis should make memory worse, but the opposite is thought to be sure
under hypnosis its claimed we can produce "age regression and help retrieve childhood memories"
129
show the example of subjects being shown slide sequence of a wallet being stolen while hypnotized and not hypnotized
-subjects asked questions about slide sequence and then rate confidence
show cell on paper
results: show hypnosis makes you feel more confidence about your memories
130
what did the LAPD run a study on and what did it show
ran a study on eyewitnesses
GP1: hypnotized
GP2: not hypnotized
results: equal recall of true details, but the hypnotized group remembers more false details
131
what happens during age regression during hypnosis
when you're age regressed it's your brains best attempt at recounting what life was like when you were young
but this does not work, hypnosis does not actually take you back to that time
132
what are the three applications of reconstruct memory idea
1) flashbulb memory
2) hypnosis
3) controversy surrounding "recovered, repressed memories" of childhood abuse
133
what are aggressive memory techniques and their possibilities
1) direct suggestions
2) imagery
3) hypnosis
2 possibilites:
1) memory technique produce retrieval cues that activate associative pathways to real memory
2) suggestions build schemas which then produce false memories
134
explain 28 states and their "delayed discovery rules"
- some states ruled out charging someone for crime that happened awhile ago because science doesn't know if repressed memories are real or reconstructed
- other states "7 year rule" (cannot make charges 7 years after the event occurred) doesnt apply until the memory is recovered
135
explain the "remember when..." study
-bring two family members into lab (one older, one younger)
-older tells stories of other one's childhood (all are true stories except for one)
2 weeks later: bring subjects back and ask younger to recall what they can of the events
results:
true stores- 75% are remembered
false stories- 25% are remembered and details re filled in that weren't there
so the true memories are remembered more than the false memories, but when subjects are told one of the stories was faked, people cant tell which was fake
problems?
1) subjects cannot distinguish true from false memories
2) no way to predict in advance who will fall for it
136
explain "implanting a false memory"
1) give people a performance test with fake feedback. say: "you have unusually proficient visual exploration and coordinated eye movement"
2) false story: "maybe you were in an infancy study with special mobiles over the crib (half given false imagery, half given age regression hypnosis)
3) one week later: "can you remember the first week in the hospital?"
results:
- 80% say "yes"
- 50% report remembering the mobile
137
can we directly verify recovered, repressed memories? (child abuse)
3 groups
1) people who always reported they had been abused
2) people who "recovered" memories years later on their own (randomly came to them)
3) people who "recovered" memories in therapy
- ask subjects if they can give another person they told their abuse to and researcher can follow up with that person (evidence)
1) 45% provided evidence, 2) 37% provided evidence, 3) 0% provided evidence
then ask "how surprised were you by the memory?"
2) is more surprised by memories than 3) because in 3) a schema was slowly being built, so when the memory was recovered it wasn't surprising
- more surprised = evidence more likely, so this suggests that 3) is more likely to be a false memory and 2) is more likely to be a true memory backed by evidence
138
what is the american psychiatric statement on repressed memory
at this point it is impossible without other corroborative evidence to distinguish a true memory from a false one
139
what are the four takeaways from this class
1) centrality of associations
2) behavior controlled by immediate consequences
3) much of mental life is non conscious
4) you cant find out motives by asking others
