Exam 3 Flashcards
(105 cards)
1
Q
Aggression/Agnostic behavior
A
Overt behavior used to gain access to resources either by excluding others from gaining access to resources or asserting a superior rank in a status hierarchy
2
Q
Aggressive behaviors
A
Display behaviors; submissive behaviors; establishment of boundaries; good pasture (deer)
3
Q
Functions of testosterone
A
Sexual behavior, sperm production, aggressive behavior, immune system; low T inhibits reproductive success but high T suppresses immune system
4
Q
Female dunnock bird
A
polygynous females aggressive toward each other; larger T levels and aggression compared to monogamous counterparts
5
Q
Challenge effect
A
A transient increase in T (testosterone) occurs in response to a challenge from another male
6
Q
Winner effect
A
the increased probability of winning an aggressive encounter based on previous victories
7
Q
Winner-challenge effect
A
The function of transient increases in
T after an encounter in males is to
increase ability to win future male-male encounters
8
Q
Full winner effect requires
A
increase in T, previous winning experience, home cage; win+T > just T > just win
9
Q
Winning at home = increase in
A
androgen receptors in nucleus accumbens, BNST; no change in receptors in LS; no winning = very few receptors in these areas
10
Q
T can be rewarding
A
Males will sometimes press bar for T; conditioned place preference - location paired with a T injection, location then preferred
11
Q
California mouse v. white footed mouse
A
California = monogamous, winner effects; white footed = promiscuous mating, less territorial, no change in T after fight, no winner effect
12
Q
Inject T into white footed mouse
A
T + win induces full winner effect, no winner effect with just T or win
13
Q
More dominant =
A
high T, low cortisol
14
Q
Amygdala & aggression
A
When electrically stimulated, docile animals
become violent; when neural activity in the
amygdala is blocked violent animals become docile
15
Q
Social influence on aggression
A
Male monkey is in the presence of less dominant monkeys, he will attack when the amydala is stimulated; If the amygdala is stimulated while monkey is in the presence of more dominant monkeys, he will not attack but will run away
16
Q
Vasopressin & Agression
A
VA antagonism blocks aggression
17
Q
High vasopressin + low serotonin =
A
highest level of aggression; patients with violent personalities
18
Q
SSRI
A
increases serotonin in synaptic cleft; varied receptors for different SSRI’s
19
Q
Human v. animal aggression
A
Animals: conspecific aggression, physical, access to resources, dominance status, reproduction: Humans: violence/inappropriate aggression, intent to harm/cause injury, assault/murder
20
Q
Aggressive impulsivity
A
Associated w/ low serotonin; “predisposition toward rapid, unplanned reactions to internal or external stimuli with diminished regard to the negative consequences of these reactions to the impulsive individual or to others”; low inhibitory control, low delay of gratification
21
Q
Dopamine & aggression
A
Increase in dopamine = increase in aggressive behavior; Aggressive behavior -> activate the release of dopamine -> generate rewarding feelings -> reinforce aggressive behavior
22
Q
Aggression increased by
A
High Testosterone
High Vasopressin
Low Serotonin
High Dopamine
23
Q
Stress
A
Perturbations to homoeostasis - requires animal to expend energy and
respond to that perturbation; adaptive
24
Q
Stress response
A
Collection of physiological and behavioral
responses that attempt to reestablish homeostasis
25
Sources of stressors
Environmental cues: temperature, noise
Physiological: decreased food, water, or coffee availability.
Psychosocial : fighting, social subordination, novel situations, or even lack of control in some situations
26
Adrenal gland response to stress
Fight or flight
27
Hans Selye
Discovered that epinephrine and glucocorticoids were released in
response to stress; general adaption syndrome
28
General adaption syndrome
1) Alarm reaction
2) Resistance
3) Exhaustion
29
Allostasis
the process of achieving homeostasis
30
Allostatic load
the cost incurred by the body during allostasis
31
Stress and HPA axis
Seconds = sympathetic system releases norepinephrine and the adrenal gland (adrenal medulla) then starts secreting epinephrine.
Minutes later - adrenal cortex begins to secrete glucocorticoids
32
Stress pathway - seconds
Hypothalamus -> (via nerve) adrenal medulla -> Catecholamine release (EPI, NOR)
33
Stress pathway - minutes
Hypothalamus -> (CRH) -> endocrine cells in anterior pituitary -> (ACTH) -> adrenal cortex -> Glucocorticoids; Mineralocorticoids
34
Short term stress response
Glycogen broken down into glucose - increased blood glucose; Increased BP; Increased breathing rate; Increased metabolic rate; Change in blood flow - increased alertness, decreased digestive & kidney activity
35
Long term stress response
Glucocorticoids: Proteins and fats broken down, converted to glucose - increased blood glucose; immune system suppressed
Mineralocorticoids: Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys; increased BP and blood volume
36
Catecholamine stress effects
Epinephrine acts first - doubling of epinephrine from resting values profoundly
alters heart rate and blood pressure; Norepinephrine concentrations must increase 5 fold to have similar effect.
37
Parachute jump study - blood hormone levels
Cort increased on 1st day, then decreased after a couple days of jumping; EPI increased on 1st day, decreased but more sustained after a couple days of jumping; T inversely related to cort -> low T levels on 1st day of jump
Stress can suppress T; HPA axis can affect HPG axis
38
Three part definition of stress (Kim and Diamond)
1) Stress provokes arousal, as assessed by increased activity and hormonal concentrations (epinephrine and glucocorticoids).
2) Individual must perceive it as aversive.
3) Extent of stress is related to an individuals’ perception of control over the aversive stimuli.
39
Physiological systems and endocrine glands affected by chronic stress
Heart; immune system; gonads; brain
40
Acute stress:
increased cardiovascular tone, increased blood pressure & heart rate, fight or flight response
41
Chronic stress effects on heart
basal hypertension, sluggish response to/recovery from stress; Glucocorticoids can act directly on cardiovascular tissue, can affect vascular development, remodeling, tone and inflammation; myopathy (muscle loss); more amygdala activity = inflammation/heart disease
42
Chronic stress effects on immune system
HPA axis activated -> chronic elevated cort, epi, nor -> altered expression of cytokines & increased apoptosis of immune cells -> immunosuppression; Decreased wound healing; Increased inflammation; Increased tumor growth
43
Chronic stress effects on gonads
Males - significant decline in total sperm concentration; testicular atrophy
Females - glucocorticoids decrease synthesis & release of GnRH, inhibit synthesis & release of LH & FSH; increased risk of anovulation and miscarriage
44
Chronic stress effects on brain
Neurogenesis w/ acute stress, but degeneration w/ chronic stress; neurodegeneration in hippocampus; Vervet monkey study: Monkeys that were constantly harassed died at a relatively young age, had enlarged adrenal gland, presence of gastric ulcers
45
Brain areas involved in neurogenesis
BDNF: promotes survival of neurons by promoting growth, maturation, differentiation and maintenance;
Serotonin: SSR's increase serotonin in BDNF = increased neurogenesis.;
BrdU: can detect neurogenesis in brain; rats subject to stress show increased BrdU in hippocampus
46
Epigenetic inheritance of stress
Mothers - Stress in pregnant mother effects stress levels in child; higher mother stress = higher cort.; adrenalectomized rats = blunted stress response
Fathers - olfactory bulb rat study: Offspring born from fathers exposed to fear conditioning to acetophenone also show a fear response to that odor; learned fear is transmitted via methylation patterns in sperm
47
Promoting neurogenesis is humans
Exercise/physical activity - increases BDNF
Joy/laughter - correlation w/ hippocampal neurogenesis (rat tickling study)
Healthy diet - increase in BDNF
Social support - protective against negative health consequences of stress (depression, heart disease, slow wound healing)
48
Pheromone
Behavior altering agent; defined chemical signal between members of the same species, eliciting a particular behavior or physiological change
49
Ectohormones
Act outside the body of the individual that is secreting them
50
Rat alarm pheromones
4-methylpentanal & hexanal - released from anal glands
51
Rat alarm pheromone pathways
4-methylpentanal -> vomeronasal system (VNS) -> accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) -> BNST -> behavioral response
Hexanal -> main olfactory system (MOS) -> main olfactory bulb (MOB) -> BNST -> behavioral response
52
Box study: rat exposed to alarm pheromone
...tend to stay inside box more and assess environment outside box more
53
Pheromones in human sweat
The fight/flight system releases adrenalin, which
activates the apocrine sweat glands in the armpit region allegedly responsible for chemosignal production; Sweat collected during sky diving activated amygdala, but sweat from exercise did not
54
Volatility
Ability of a compound to vaporize or diffuse and travel through the environment;
55
Low volatile chemical signals
Used to mark boundaries; last a long time in environment; does not travel as far; the vomeronasal organ detects these signals preferentially
56
High volatile chemical signals
Used in alarm signals; can go around barriers; travels quickly; lasts for short time
57
MHC gene
A cell surface molecule encoded by a large gene family in all vertebrates; encode cell surface glycoproteins
that bind short peptides and present them to T
lymphocytes; control the immunological self/non self discrimination; highly polymorphic/considerable diversity; in urine and sweat
58
T cell will identify viral infected cells via...
histocompatability molecule
59
Kin recognition
avoid kin for mating -> increase gene diversity and increase ability to respond to immune challenge; cooperate with kin; Male red jungle fowl study: allocated significantly more sperm to the female with whom they were most MHC dissimilar
60
Male pheromone influence on females
Women who spend more time with men have greater probability of normal menstrual cycles; presence of male
extract will decrease interval between LH peaks/shortened time to next LH pulse by ~20%
61
Female pheromone influence on males
higher T levels when exposed to odor from ovulating female
62
McClintock effect
Syncing of menstrual cycles among roommates, close friends, family
63
Menstrual cycle synchronization studies
Bedouin population - women share same room & are sequestered from men; synchrony observed 2/3 months
Rat study: Synchrony in rats mediated by exchange of two different pheromones: before ovulation - shortens cycle, after ovulation - lengthens cycle
Humans - ovulatory pheromone lengthens cycle, follicular pheromone shortens cycle
64
Compound similar to testosterone found in male human sweat
Androstenol
65
Pheromone reception (neural circuitry) - study
```
16 heterosexual females were exposed to
– Androstenol
– Four Ordinary Odors (OO) (butanol, cedar oil,
lavender oil and eugenol)
– Odorless air (served as control)
```
```
Control = increased bloodflow in classical olfactory pathway
Androstenol = activated anterior hypothalamus & vomeronasal AMY
```
66
Classical olfactory pathway
piriform cortex, lateral amygdala, anterior insular and anterior cingulate cortex
67
Androstenol varying responses
homosexual men - similar to hetero women
homosexual women - no response
heterosexual men - no response
CAH women - similar to hetero women
68
Three components of neuronal response:
1) Humoral response: Stimulates hormone
release
2) Visceromotor response: Control autonomic
nervous system
3) Somatic motor response: Elicit regulatory
behaviors
69
____ regulates homeostasis
lateral hypothalamus
70
Leptin
Released from fat cells in adipose tissue; high levels in well-fed state - inhibit food intake; low levels in fasting state - stimulate food intake; binds in arcuate nucleus; activates alpha-MSH and CART peptides; + feedback in PVN - ACTH and TSH stimulated; - feedback on lateral hypothalamus
71
Ghrelin
Released from stomach; low levels in well-fed state - inhibit food intake; high levels in fasting state - stimulate food intake; binds in arcuate nucleus; NPY and AgRP peptides
72
Glucagon
Released from pancreas in response to low blood sugar; low levels in well-fed state, high levels in fasting state -> breaks down glucose; glucose travels to brain
73
Insulin
Released from pancreas in response to high blood sugar; high levels in well-fed state -> stimulates glucose uptake from blood to lower blood sugar level; low level in fasting state; glucose travels to brain
74
Glycogen
storage form of glucose
75
Type II diabetes
insulin resistant; glucose stays in blood and not absorbed in tissue
76
Glucose levels in body
Too little = brain problems
| Too much = osmotic water loss - body dehydrated; damage to blood vessels
77
Hunger - homeostatic feedback loops
-Maintenance of blood glucose levels (short term feeding behavior)
-Maintenance of fat stores (long-term
feeding behavior)
-Other factors (i.e. mood)
78
Anabolic factors of hunger
Increased appetite and food intake and decreased metabolism.
79
Catabolic factors of hunger
Decreased appetite and food intake and increased metabolism
80
Lipostatic hypothesis
The brain monitors fat levels and maintains them at some fixed setpoint amount; requires that the fat communicate with the brain in some way
81
Hormone from fat - rat study
Parabiosis (the fusing of two animals so that they
share the same blood) of a genetically obese mouse
to a normal mouse -> caused the obese mouse to
become thin (normal weight)
Genetic component to obesity; hormone from fat = leptin; mutation in ob gene which encodes leptin in obese mice; obese mice injected with leptin decreased to normal body weight
82
Leptin in obese individuals
Leptin levels higher because of high levels of lipids
(as we would predict based on feedback loops)
Maybe leptin resistant (maybe receptors) ??
83
Hunger center
lateral hypothalamus
84
Satiety center
ventromedial hypothalamus
85
Body's integrated response to high leptin
Humoral - increased TSH & ACTH secretion
Visceromotor - increase sympathetic response (inc. metabolic rate & body temp)
Somatic motor - decrease in feeding behavior
86
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
released by gut; stimulates digestion of fat and protein
87
Anorexia nervosa
-Characterized by an altered body image, low weight and
persistent food reduction
-Ghrelin high - body pushing to increase appetite
-Leptin low -> low adipose tissue -> low GnRH -> low LH -> low E, T, P
-Decreased reproduction
-Chronic stress: high cort, ACTH, CRH
88
Endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC)
A non-natural chemical that interferes with any aspect of hormone action
BPA, DES, DDT, phthalates, oxybenzone
89
DES - Diethylstilbesterol
Synthetic estrogen intended to decrease miscarriages; found to reduce cancer growth in prostate tissue; taken orally; increased breast cancer in female offspring and increased cryptorchidism in male offspring; low binding affinity
90
BPA - Bisphenol A
- Mimics estrogen; released from plastics during hydrolysis and heating; contact = orally and transdermally
- Effects on adults = decrease in fertility, increase in type II diabetes, polycystic ovarian syndrome, increase in cancer and obesity
- Effects on offspring (rat studies) = disruption of secual diff. in brain; males - female-like expression of kisspeptin in PVN; females - develop abnormal mulllerian ducts
91
Oxybenzone
Mimics progesterone; Has estrogenic
effects, Can have antiandrogenic effects; Contact = transdermally (sunscreen); Effect on adults - endometriosis, may decrease fertility in men; effect on offspring unknown
92
Birdsong - Fall
Intrinsic; Non sexually motivated; facilitated by flockmates, lack of predators (low stress); song learning; flock cohesion; song is stimulated and rewarded by MOR activation in mPOA; correlates w/ conditioned place preference
93
Birdsong - Spring
Extrinsic; sexually motivated; stimulated by female presence; functions to attract mates -> males stop singing after copulate; song is inhibited and rewarded by MOR activation in mPOA.
94
Intrinsic reward
an intangible award of recognition, a sense of achievement, or a conscious satisfaction
95
Dopamine - birdsong
Plays a primary role in motivated, reward-directed, anticipatory behaviors.
96
Opioids - birdsong
Play a primary role in pleasure or reward; Medial preoptic area -> receptor activation rewards and inhibits male sexual behavior;
Natural opioids = B-endorphin and Met-Enkephalin (bind to Mu receptors)
97
Mu opioid receptor (MOR)
MOR activation in mPOA inhibit spring song; MOR activation stimulates fall song
98
Met-Enkephalin (Met-E)
Met-E in the MPOA induces place preference; higher Met-E =more singing; Met-enkephalin labeling in mPOA correlates
positively with fall song
99
Human circadian rhythm
- Temp - high during day, low at night
- Cortisol - peaks during morning, drops during day
- Growth hormone - low during day, high at night
- Melatonin - rises and falls during night, low during day
100
Melatonin
- Inhibited by light, stimulated by dark
- Newborns have low levels = lots of waking
- Peaks in early childhood, then declines
- Released by Pineal gland
- Receptors in SCN
101
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
"Biological clock"; has melatonin receptors
Light-sensitive receptors in the retina relay
how light/dark it is to the SCN -> SCN uses this info to set circadian rhythm
102
Melatonin metabolic pathway
Tryptophan -> Serotonin -> N-acetylserotonin ->Melatonin
103
SCN study
Genetic mutations - different sleep cycles -> transplant SCN's -> cycle changes to match donor's cycle
104
Blue light effect on sleep cycle
Suppresses melatonin; can shift rhythm up to 3 hours
105
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
In autumn/winter when daylight hours short; Influenced by serotonin levels, not melatonin; serotonin transporter down regulation doesn't occur -> less serotonin in cleft
