Exam 3 Study Guide Material

Question 1

Label the different portions of the spine using APR module 5.

Answer 1

C,T,L,S,C

Question 2

Label the different components of the spinal nerve. Including dorsal rootlets, root, and ganglion as well as ventral rootlets, root, and spinal nerve.

Answer 2

Ventral= front of body
Dorsal= back of body

Question 3

Identify the phrenic nerve which is a deep branch of the cervical plexus.

Answer 3

Question 4

Identify different dorsal and ventral ramus as well as gray and white ramus.

Answer 4

The ventral ramus is the anterior division of the spinal cord that supplies anterolateral parts of the trunk and limbs. The dorsal ramus contains nerves the serve the dorsal portion of the truck.

Question 5

Identify keys points of the brainstem including the diencephalon, pons, midbrain, and medulla oblongata.

Answer 5

The Pons kind of looks like the letter P while the diencephalon looks like a sideways D.

Question 6

Identify the different ventricles within the brain. Including lateral, third, and fourth ventricles. Remember the ventricles in the brain contain CSF that cushion and protect the brain.

Answer 6

Question 7

Identify the fifth cranial nerve called the trigeminal nerve. Remember that this nerve is the largest of the cranial nerves. Its primary function is to provide sensory innervation to the face and is divided into three main branches. The different branches are the ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3) nerves.

Answer 7

Mixed nerve for sensation of the face and control of chewing movement.

Question 8

Identify the seventh cranial nerve called the facial nerve. Remember this carries nerve fibers that control facial movement and expression.

Answer 8

Question 9

Identify the different components of the inner ear including the tympanic membrane and cavity, cochlea, and vestibulocochlear nerve.

Answer 9

Question 10

Identify the different components of the eyeball including the sclera, cornea, pupil, lens, and suspensory ligaments.

Answer 10

Question 11

What makes up the CNS and the PNS?

Answer 11

CNS- brain and spinal cord
PNS- everything else like nerves and ganglia (examples include cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots and branches, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular junctions)

Question 12

What are the important features of a typical neuron (include Nissl bodies, myelin, conductivity, and NTs)?

Answer 12

Conductivity- neurons respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals.

NTs- neurons secrete NTs when an electrical signal reaches the end of the nerve fiber that passes a message to other cells.

Nissl bodies- compartmentalized rough ER. They can synthesize proteins within the neuron.

Myelin- analogous to insulation on a wire. Made by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Myelin consists of the plasma membrane of glial cells and lipids. Myelinated portions of the axon are called internodes and are separated by gaps called nodes of Ranvier. In the PNS, the myelin sheath is called the neurilemma. Fibrous CT called endoneurium surrounds it and is essential for the regeneration of damaged fibers. (CNS nerve fibers are incapable of regeneration!!)

Question 13

What are the 5 kinds of neuroglia found in the CNS and PNS and what are their functions?

Answer 13

CNS- Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells, Microglia, and Astrocytes

PNS- Schwann and Satellite cells

Question 14

Identify the upper and lower motor neurons as well as their location and functions.

Answer 14

Ascending tracts carry sensory info up the cord whereas descending tracts carry motor impulses down the brainstem and spinal cord. Several tracts undergo decussation meaning they cross over the other side of body at the brainstem or spinal cord.

Descending tracts typically have two neurons involved; an upper neuron with its soma in the cerebral cortex or brainstem, and a lower motor neuron in the brainstem or the spinal cord whose axon leads to a muscle or different effector.

Question 15

What are the divisions of the spinal cord?

Answer 15

The spinal cord is divided into the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.

Question 16

What is the difference between afferent and efferent fibers?

Answer 16

Afferent fibers carry sensory signals from receptors to the CNS.

Efferent fibers carry motor signals from the CNS to effectors.

Question 17

What are the contents of the central canal of the spinal cord?

Answer 17

The right and left sides of central gray matter are connected by gray commissure. In the middle of the gray commissure is the central canal.

Remember gray matter contains somas, dendrites, and proximal parts of axons. White matter consists of myelinated axons organized into bundles.

The central canal contains CSF!

Question 18

Describe the structure of a nerve including the three layers of CT surrounding them.

Answer 18

A nerve is several axons wrapped by connective tissue in the PNS. The endoneurium surrounds one axon. The perineurium wraps a fascicle of axons. The epineurium covers the entire nerve.

Question 19

What are the three meninges layers associated with the spinal cord?

Answer 19

The outermost layer is the dura mater. It provides a protective sheath around nervous tissue.

The space in between the dura mater and bone is called the epidural space and is filled with BVs, adipose tissue, and loose CT.

The arachnoid mater is a spider-web-like structure that adheres to the dural sheath. It consists of simple squamous epithelium and collagenous and elastic fibers.

The pia mater is a thin and translucent membrane that adheres to the spinal cord.

Question 20

Which part of the nervous system controls the movement of your hand?

Answer 20

The median nerve (C8) of the brachial plexus. This is part of the PNS motor division called the somatic motor division.

Question 21

Describe first through third-order neurons.

Answer 21

Sensory signals traveling up the cord typically travel across three neurons from their origin in receptors to their destination in sensory areas of the brain. A first order neuron detects the stimulus and transmits the signal to the spinal cord or brainstem; a second-order neuron neuron continues to the thalamus of the brain; a third-order neuron carries the signal to the sensory region of the motor cortex.

Question 22

What is decussation in the ascending tracts?

Answer 22

The medial lemniscus pathway decussates in the medulla.

The spinothalamic pathways decussates in the spinal cord.

Question 23

You step on a sharp pin, what pathway does the pain signal follow?

Answer 23

The spinothalamic tract ascends in the anterior and lateral funiculi to end in the thalamus. This tract decussates in the spinal cord.

Question 24

What are the general characteristics of a reflex?

Answer 24

Properties of somatic reflexes include quickness, involuntary, and stereotyped. They are quick since they involve few interneurons. They are involuntary as they occur without thought. Stereotyped meaning the response is the same every time.

Question 25

How do visceral reflexes differ from somatic reflexes?

Answer 25

Visceral reflexes are unconscious automatic, stereotyped responses of visceral effectors to stimuli. An example is a rise in blood pressure triggers reflexive decrease in heart rate. Visceral reflexes are controlled by the ANS and act on glands, cardiac muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Somatic reflexes are controlled by the somatic nervous system and rely on simple neural pathway called a reflex arc. Somatic reflexes, for instance, involve a direct connection from the ventral horn of the spinal cord to the skeletal muscle.

Question 26

What are the components of the reflex arc?

Answer 26

The autonomic activity involves a reflex arc that requires several components including receptors, afferent neurons leading to CNS, efferent neurons, and effectors. First somatic receptors in skin, muscle, or tendons, sense heat, pain, stretch, etc. Second, afferent nerve fibers carry information from the receptors into the dorsal horn of spinal cord. Third, an integrating center in the spinal cord or brainstem processes the information and determines whether an efferent neuron will issue a command to muscle. Efferent nerve fibers carry motor impulses to muscle and finally skeletal muscles carry out a response. The afferent neuron synapses directly with an efferent neuron.

Question 27

Identify the 5 plexuses of spinal nerves including the name, location, nerves that arise from it, and the structures innervated by it.

Answer 27

All plexuses receive fibers from anterior rami and give rise to peripheral nerves. 1. Cervical plexus 2. Brachial plexus 3. Lumbar plexus 4. Sacral plexus 5. Coccygeal plexus

Question 28

Identify the location, nerves that arise from it, and structures innervated by the Cervical plexus.

Answer 28

1. Arises from the ventral rami of nerves C1 to C5 (neck). 2. Gives rise to the phrenic nerves. 3. Phrenic nerves supply the diaphragm and plays an essential role in breathing.

Question 29

Identify the location, nerves that arise from it, and structures innervated by the Brachial plexus.

Answer 29

1. Arise from the ventral rami of nerves C4 through T2. (shoulder) 2. Nerves that arise from the brachial plexus include musculocutaneous, axillary, radial, median, and ulnar. 3. All of these nerves supply upper limb while the radial nerve supplies the muscle and skin of posterior arm and forearm and the musculocutaneous supplies the muscles of anterior arm and skin.

Question 30

Identify the location, nerves that arise from it, and structures innervated by the Lumbar plexus.

Answer 30

1. Arise from ventral rami of nerves L1 and L4 with some fibers from T12. (lower back) 2. The femoral nerve is an important nerve that arises from this. 3. The femoral nerve supplies the quad femoris, sartorius, and iliopsoas and other muscles and skin of the thigh.

Question 31

Identify the location, nerves that arise from it, and structures innervated by the sacral and coccygeal plexuses.

Answer 31

1. Sacral plexus is formed from ventral rami L4, L5, and S1 and S4. Coccygeal lexus is formed from ventral rami of S4, S5, and Co1. 2. The sacral plexus gives off the sciatic nerve which is a combo of tibial and common fibular nerves. The coccygeal plexus gives rise to anococcygeal nerve.

Question 32

What is the location and function of the medulla oblongata? Important anatomical markings.

Answer 32

Has a prominent pair of ridges on ventral surface that look like pyramids. Gives rise to cranial nerves IX, X, and XII There are cardiac centers that control BP and flow. Respiratory centers regulate rate and depth of breathing. Nuclei present with gagging, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, salivation, and sweating. Sensory and motor functions for head and neck.

Question 33

What is the location and function of the pons? Important anatomical markings.

Answer 33

Has a bulge on front portion and peduncles that attach to cerebellum posteriorly. Origins of cranial nerves V-VII and some VIII. Functions in facial sensation and expression, control of chewing, respiration, and sleep.

Question 34

What is the location and function of the midbrain? Important anatomical markings.

Answer 34

Has a tectum which is a roof-like structure dorsal to cerebral aqueduct. It has 4 bulges. Gives rise to cranial nerves 3 and 4. Red nucleus and substantia nigra for motor control. Superior colliculus for visual attention and inferior colliculus for auditory attention.

Question 35

What is the location and function of the substantia nigra? Important anatomical markings.

Answer 35

Substantia nigra is a motor center that relays inhibitory signals to the thalamus and basal nuclei of the cerebrum with the effect of suppressing unwanted motor contractions.

Question 36

What is the limbic system and its functions?

Answer 36

The limbic system is a ring of structures on the medial side of each cerebral hemisphere that encircles the corpus callosum and thalamus. Plays a critical role in emotions and learning. Functions in learning, emotion, gratification, and aversion responses. It includes structures like cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, basal nuclei, and prefrontal cortex.

Question 37

What is the location and general function and organization of the hypothalamus?

Answer 37

Hypothalamus forms part of the wall and floor of the third ventricle. Has several key functions and key role in maintaining homeostasis. 1. Major integrating center for ANS 2. Monitors blood temperature. 3. Drives to eat and drink. 4. Regulates waking and falling asleep. Nuclei for circadian rhythm. 5.Hormone secretion of oxytocin and ADH 6. wide range of emotions including sex drive, copulation, and orgasm. 7. Mammillary bodies between hippocampus and hypothalamus needed for new memory formation.

Question 38

What is the somatosensory organization of the postcentral gyrus and its location?

Answer 38

The thalamus routes all somesthetic/ general signals to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe.

Question 39

Where is Wernicke's area in the cerebrum and what is its function?

Answer 39

It is posterior to the lateral sulcus of left brain. Functions in the recognition of written and spoken language. Wernicke's area is a sensory association area that transmits plans of speech to Broca's area. Located in the superior temporal gyrus.

Question 40

Where is Broca's area in the cerebrum and what is its function?

Answer 40

This is inferior to the prefrontal cortex of the left brain. Functions in speech by generating the motor plan for muscles of the larynx, lips, and more. Plan is transferred to the primary motor cortex for execution.

Question 41

What is the location and function of the corpus callosum and thalamus?

Answer 41

The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres so both sides of the brain can communicate with each other. The thalamus is a large ovoid mass that makes up 4/5ths of the diencephalon. Called the gateway to cerebral cortex. Involved in sensation, movement, memory, and emotion. It is the relay station of sensory signals to the cerebrum.

Question 42

What is the role of the amygdala and hippocampus in memory formation?

Answer 42

The limbic system plays an important role in the establishment of memories. The amygdala creates emotional memories while the hippocampus is critical to the creation of long-term declarative memories. The hippocampus replays memory repeatedly to the cerebral cortex to store lasting memories.

Question 43

What contributes to the blood brain barrier?

Answer 43

To prevent harm to the brain, the blood-brain barrier seals capillaries via the feet of astrocytes. They form tight junctions between endothelial cells. BBB is only permeable to water, glucose, and lipid-soluble substances.

Question 44

What are the differences between the autonomic/visceral and somatic nervous system?

Answer 44

The ANS has involuntary control of glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. ANS is responsible for visceral reflexes. The ANS adjust the function of visceral effectors rather than providing initial stimulus. NOT independent ONLY motor pathways. The somatic nervous system involves skeletal muscles and is voluntary. Involves sensory and motor pathways.

Question 45

What are the general functions of the ANS including its effectors?

Answer 45

The general functions of the ANS is regulating processes that are vital to maintaining homeostasis. The effectors in the ANS are glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.

Question 46

Describe the two-neural pathway of autonomic output.

Answer 46

The ANS requires two neurons to reach a target. The preganglionic neuron has its soma in the brainstem or spinal cord. The axon (preganglionic fiber) terminates in the autonomic ganglion where it synapses with a postganglionic neuron whose axon (postganglionic fiber) extends the rest of the way to the target cells.

Question 47

What are the functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 47

The sympathetic division is known as the 'fight-or-flight' response for increased physical activity. It increases heart rate and blood glucose. Reduces blood flow to skin and GIT. The parasympathetic division is known as the 'rest-and-digest' response with calming effects. Decreases HR and stimulates digestion and waste elimination.

Question 48

What is the role of the adrenal medulla and its hormones in the sympathetic nervous system?

Answer 48

The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland that secretes epinephrine and NE. The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion. Some sympathetic fibers terminate on modified postganglionic cells in the medulla. When stimulated, the medulla secretes E and NE into the blood.

Question 49

What are the 5 primary taste sensations?

Answer 49

The 5 primary taste sensations are sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.

Question 50

What is the difference between taste and flavor?

Answer 50

Flavors are not just a mixture of the five primary tastes but are also influenced by texture, smell, and state of mind.

Question 51

Where are taste buds located?

Answer 51

The tongue has the most taste buds but some are present in the soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis, and checks. Projections on the tongue called lingual papillae are associated with tastes. The fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped on tp and sides of the tongue with 3 taste buds. Vallate papillae are large pumps in the back tongue that contain around 1/2 of all taste buds.

Question 52

Which nerve endings are found in the skin?

Answer 52

Question 53

What are the muscles in the eyes involved in looking up and down?

Answer 53

Upward- superior rectus Downward- inferior rectus lateral- lateral rectus Medial- medial rectus

Question 54

What is the structure of rods and cone cells?

Answer 54

Rods- night vision with the pigment rhodopsin. The rods have an outer segment that has a stack of membranous discs enclosed in a plasma membrane. Each disk is studded with the pigment rhodopsin. Cones- highly concentrated in the fovea. Day vision and fine-resolution detailed images. The outer segment tapers to a point and the discs are parallel infolding not separate discs.

Question 55

Where in each rod and cone cell are the visual pigments located?

Answer 55

Rods pigment of rhodopsin is studded on each membranous disk. Cones pigment of photopsins (blue, green, orange-yellow)

Question 56

How do rods and cones differ in function?

Answer 56

Rods are used for nighttime vision whereas cones are responsible for high-quality images.

Question 57

Describe the anatomy of the cochlea.

Answer 57

The cochlea is a spiral organ composed of hair cells and supporting cells. The hair cells have stiff microvilli on top called stereocilia. It is filled with fluid and plays a vital role in the sense of hearing. The cochlear duct, the organ of hearing, is inside the cochlea. Inside the cochlea, there are three fluid-filled spaces separated by membranes.

Question 58

What is the functional difference between inner and outer cochlea hair cells?

Answer 58

There is one row of inner hair cells and three rows of outer hair cells. Outer hair cells protect the ear while inner hair cells initiate nerve signals.

Question 59

What are the semicircular ducts in the ear?

Answer 59

The semicircular ducts are filled with endolymph. Each duct opens into the utricle and has a dilated sac at one end called an ampulla. Within the ampulla are hair and supporting cells. A gelatinous membrane called a cupola extends to the roof of the ampulla. When the body accelerates, the duct rotates but the endolymph lags behind and pushes the cupola. This bends the stereocilia on the cupola and stimulates hair cells. This is how semicircular ducts detect acceleration.

Question 60

What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium? What inner-ear structure is specialized to detect this?

Answer 60

Static equilibrium is the maintenance of the proper head position in response to changes in linear motion such as walking. Dynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of proper head position in response to rotational movement such as turning. The vestibular apparatus of the inner ear detects this.

Question 61

What is the difference between linear and angular acceleration? What inner-ear structure is specialized to detect this?

Answer 61

Angular acceleration is the change in rate of rotation and is detected by semicircular ducts. Linear acceleration is perceived by saccule and utricle. Receptors for equilibrium, coordination, and balance make up the vestibular apparatus and include the 3 semicircular ducts, 2 chambers, the saccule, and the utricle.

Question 62

What are the neural components of the eye?

Answer 62

The neural components of the eye include the retina and optic nerve. The retina is a thin, filmy membrane. It attaches at two places, the ora serrata anteriorly and the optic disc posteriorly. The optic nerve exits at the optic disc at the rear of the eyeball which is also a blind stop.

Question 63

How do different regions of the retina differ in function?

Answer 63

The retina contains rods, cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. The conversion of light energy to action potentials occurs in the retina. The most posterior layer, the pigment epithelium, consists of darkly pigmented epithelial cells who basal processes interdigitate with receptor cells of the retina. It absorbs light and prevents it from degrading the visual image. The neural part of the retina consists of three cell layers; from back to front there are photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. Photoreceptor cells are the rods and cones. Rods and cones synapse with dendrites of bipolar cells (1st order neurons in visual pathway). Second order neurons are called the ganglion cells and their axons converge to form the optic nerve.

Question 64

What is the fovea and macula lutea of the eye?

Answer 64

The Macula lutea is near the optic disc and is a dense path of receptors for detailed vision. In the center of the macula lutea is the fovea which is the portion of the retina where the most detailed images are produced.

Question 65

Which of the following terms describes an accumulation of nerve cell bodies in the PNS?

Answer 65

Ganglion

Question 66

Which of the following meninges of the CNS is intimately applied to the surface of the brain and spinal cord?

Answer 66

Pia mater

Question 67

Which are the two major structural divisions of the CNS?

Answer 67

White matter (myelinated axons) and gray matter (somas)

Question 67

What are the two major divisions of the true spinal nerve once it exits the intervertebral foramen?

Answer 67

Dorsal ramus and ventral ramus

Question 68

What structure is purely motor?

Answer 68

Ventral rootlets

Question 69

How many spinal nerves must be cut (lesioned) to totally denervate a single dermatome?

Answer 69

3

Question 69

Which menginge (layer) of the CNS will split to form a dural venous sinus?

Answer 69

Dura Mater

Question 69

Identify the connective tissue layer surrounding a single axon.

Answer 69

Endoneurium

Question 69

Which of the following dural folds separates the cerebral hemispheres?

Answer 69

Falx cerebri

Question 69

Which of the following is NOT an artery found in the arterial circle at the base of the brain?

Answer 69

Common carotid

Question 70

Which of the following fibers types are NOT contained within cranial nerves?

Answer 70

Sympathetic

Question 71

Which of the following cranial nerves is not PURELY motor?

Answer 71

Oculomotor (trochlear, abducens, and hypoglossal are purely motor)

Question 72

Which of the following cranial nerves is parasympathetic to the thorax and abdomen?

Answer 72

X

Question 73

Which of the following functions is associated with the limbic system?

Answer 73

Feelings of contentment, fear, or anger

Question 74

The primary somesthetic cortex of the postcentral gyrus is found in what part of the cerebrum?

Answer 74

Parietal lobe

Question 75

The hypothalamus plays a role in controlling all of the following except?

Answer 75

Speech (plays parts in sex drive, hunger, sleepiness, and BP)

Question 75

Which of the following is most concerned with vision?

Answer 75

Occipital lobe

Question 76

The representational hemisphere of the cerebrum would control which of the following functions?

Answer 76

Painting a picture (not giving a speech, balancing a checkbook, or taking a test) The categorical hemisphere is typically the left. It is specialized in language and analytic reasoning. The representational hemisphere is the right. It perceives information in a more holistic fashion and is associated with imagination, insight, and art skills.

Question 77

How many neurons are involved in the autonomic nervous system relay?

Answer 77

2

Question 78

Which of the following facts concerning the sympathetic division of the ANS is FALSE?

Answer 78

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers leave the spinal cord via the dorsal root. (It is true that the sympathetic neuron cell bodies lie in the intermediolateral gray horn of T1 through L2. It is true that the closest site for synapse for the preganglionic sympathetic fiber is the sympathetic trunk (paravertebral ganglion chain). It is true that collateral ganglia for sympathetic synapse lie along the base of the 3 main blood vessels of the abdomen These exit at ventral roots NOT dorsal roots!

Question 79

Somatic (body wall) innervation runs along which of the following:

Answer 79

Dorsal and ventral rami

Question 80

Splanchnic nerves conduct which type of fiber to what region of the body?

Answer 80

Pre/postganglionic sympathetic fibers to body viscera

Question 81

What are visceral afferent fibers?

Answer 81

Visceral sensory fibers from viscera.

Question 82

Which of the following ganglia facilitate the parasympathetic synapse in the wall of the effector organ?

Answer 82

Intramural/ terminal ganglia

Question 83

Pain extending down the posterior region of the lower limb, from a herniated disc at L4/5 is due to which of the following:

Answer 83

Proximal-distal referred pain

Question 84

Which of the following facts concerning the parasympathetic division of the ANS is false?

Answer 84

Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers run in the ventral and dorsal rami to supply all body dermatomes. (It is true that preganglionic parasympathetic fibers exit the spinal cord via the ventral root.)

Question 85

What is the function of white rami communications?

Answer 85

Take preganglionic sympathetic fibers to the sympathetic trunk for synapse.

Question 86

Which of the following fibers synapses in the intramural (terminal) autonomic ganglion?

Answer 86

Preganglionic parasympathetic

Question 87

Which type of neuron is involved in the sense of smell (olfaction)?

Answer 87

Bipolar

Question 88

Which region in this diagram represents the location of the olfactory mucosa?

Answer 88

B

Question 89

Which location marked on the diagram would you always expect to find a taste bud?

Answer 89

B- circumvallate papilla

Question 90

Which of the structures in this diagram represent the semicircular canals?

Answer 90

D

Question 91

Which cranial nerve is associated with the special sense of hearing?

Answer 91

VIII

Question 92

Static equilibrium is the result of otoliths stimulating these structures in the inner ear...

Answer 92

Hair cells

Question 93

Tears formed by the lacrimal gland are drained into the nasal cavity by the:

Answer 93

Nasolacrimal duct

Question 94

The sclera of the eyeball is represented by which label on this diagram?

Answer 94

C

Question 95

Which of the extraocular muscles is responsible for moving the eyeball inwards (adduction)?

Answer 95

Medial rectus

Question 96

Inflammation of which of the following is responsible for the production of a sty?

Answer 96

Sebaceous gland