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bio second sem > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

locomotion

A

movement of an organism under its own
power

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2
Q

The cost of locomotion for running, flying, and
swimming animals decreases

A

with body mass

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3
Q

Vertebrate skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue is made of long, slender cells called

A

muscle fibers

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4
Q

Each muscle fiber has many threadlike, contractile structures called

A

myofibrils

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5
Q

myofibrils are striated due to alternating light-dark units
called

A

sarcomeres

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6
Q

sarcomeres shorten=

A

myofibrils contract

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6
Q

sarcomeres lengthen =

A

myofibrils relax

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7
Q

Muscle cells contain many ____, which contain
many sarcomeres

A

myofibrils

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8
Q

Sarcomere made up of two types of proteins: what are they and what do they do

A
  1. Actin: composes thin filaments
  2. Myosin: composes thick filaments
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9
Q

Thin actin filaments are composed of 2 coiled chains of actin:

A

One end is anchored to the Z disk, which forms the wall
between sarcomeres
* The other end is free to interact with thick filaments

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10
Q

z disk in thin actin filaments

A

forms the wall
between sarcomeres

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11
Q

contraction of sarcomere

A

The filaments slide past one another
- The sarcomere shortens with no change
in lengths of the thin and
thick filaments themselves

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12
Q

myosin’s “Head” binds ___ and actin

A

ATP

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13
Q

myosin head can bind to actin
head which

A

catalyzes hydrolysis of ATP

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14
Q

ATP binding releases

A

actin and myosin

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15
Q

rigor mortis

A

myosin and actin
locked together after an animal dies.
ATP required for myosin to release
actin.

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16
Q

step 1 of myosin and actin interaction

A

ATP binds to myosin head, causing conformation change, releasing head from actin.

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17
Q

step 2 of myosin and actin interaction

A

When ATP is hydrolyzed, myosin head pivots and binds to new actin subunit farther down thin filament

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18
Q

step 3 of myosin and actin interaction

A

When inorganic phosphate is released, head pivots back to original conformation. Power stroke moves entire thin filament relative to thick filament

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19
Q

step 4 of myosin and actin interaction

A

ADP is released, and myosin head is ready to bind to
another ATP

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20
Q

Thin filaments also contain proteins what are they and what do they regulate

A

troponin and tropomyosin. regulate muscle activity
also work together to block myosin binding
sites on actin

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21
Q

the 4 steps of myosin and actin interaction is called what

A

sliding filament model

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22
Q

classes of muscles
Multivariate vs. Univariate:

A

Multivariate = multiple nucleus
Univariate = single nucleus

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23
Q

classes of muscles
Striated versus unstriated

A

Striated = striped appreance (e.g., skeletal muscles)
Unstriated = smooth appreance (e.g., smooth)

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24
Q

smooth muscles characteristics

A
  1. tapered. thin sheets.
  2. Lack sarcomeres that are found in skeletal and
    cardiac muscle, unstriated. UNIVARIATE.
  3. Essential to function of lungs, blood vessels,
    digestive system, urinary bladder, and
    reproductive system
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25
Q

cardiac muscle characteristics

A
  1. make up walls of heart and responsible for pumping blood. have sarcomeres, striated, branched, connected end to end by intercalated discs.
  2. generate their own electricity
    3.involuntary, spontaneous depolarization- do not require nerves
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26
Q

skeletal muscles

A
  1. unbranched, long, multiple nuclei, striped, packed with myofibrils, striated appearance
  2. attached to bones
  3. openings of the digestive system and urinary tracts.
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27
Q

damage to skeletal muscles will result in

A

paralysis

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28
Q

where is a plant getting its mass from

A

mostly CO2 since its transformed into sugar in photosynthesis

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29
Q

essential nutrient

A

element or compound required for normal growth and reproduction

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30
Q

Three elements make up 96% of the dry mass of the plant:

A

carbon
hydrogen
oxygen

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31
Q

macronutrients

A

plants need large quantities of macronutrients, certain elements, from the soil.
-Some are major components of nucleic acids, proteins, and
phospholipids (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium

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32
Q

micronutrients

A

plants require micronutrients in small
quantities
usually act as COFACTORS of specific enzymes

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33
Q

zone of maturation contains what

A

root hairs

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34
Q

how do root hairs absorb nutrients from the soil

A

electrochemical gradients created by proton pumps

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35
Q

what do root hairs do

A

provide tremendous surface area for nutrient absorption

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36
Q

how do cations enter root hairs

A

via channels

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37
Q

how do anions enter root hairs

A

cotransporters

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38
Q

Fungi and plant roots that live in symbiotic association are called

A

mycorrhizae

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39
Q

symbiotic relationship between plant and fungi is

A

mutualistic
fungi- obtain sugar from the plant
plant- receive nutrients from fungi- nitrogen

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40
Q

passive exclusion

A

root cells lack transporters to bring in toxic ions

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41
Q

active exclusion

A

plants have mechanisms for coping with toxins that enter their cells

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42
Q

plants exclude toxic ions by

A

passive and active exclusion

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43
Q

casparian strip blocks negative ions in what

A

passive exclusion

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44
Q

Metallothioneins and phytochelatins in active exclusion

A

synthesized by special enzymes
bind to metal ions and prevent them from acting as poison, macromolecules

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45
Q

epiphytic

A

plants appear to live inthe air

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46
Q

parasites

A

live on or inside a host in hopes to obtain water or nutrients from host and reduce their fitness

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47
Q

haustoria in heterotroph parasitic plants

A

penetrate host vascular system to obtain water and nutrients

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48
Q

most parasitic plants are ___ and use haustoria to extract ___ and ions from xylem of host plant

A

photosynthetic, water

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49
Q

epiphytes characteristic

A

non parasitic, grow in absence of soil, nutrietns absorbed through the leaves

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50
Q

carnivourous plants

A

trap insects and other animals. kill their prey and absorb their nutrients. make their own carbs from photosynthesis.
ex. venus fly trap- nitrogen from insect

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51
Q

The force output of skeletal muscle depends on:

A

) relative proportion of different fiber types
(2) organization of fibers within the muscle
(3) how the muscle is used

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52
Q

The length change of muscle is determined by

A

length of muscle
fibers or (2) how many sarcomeres
are lined up in a row in each fiber

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53
Q

the force of muscle is proportional
to

A

cross-sectional area of muscle
cell and (2) number of sarcomeres
lined upside by side, pulling in
synchrony

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54
Q
  • Skeletal systems have four functions
A

Protection from physical and biological assaults
(2) Maintenance of body posture
(3) Re-extension of shortened muscles
(4) Transfer of muscle forces to other parts of body

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55
Q

All animals have one or more of three types of skeletal
systems:

A

hydrostatic, endoskeletons, exoskeletons

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56
Q

hydrostatic skeletons

A

use hydrostatic pressure of
enclosed body fluids or soft tissues to support body

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57
Q

endoskeleton vs exoskeleton

A

have rigid structures inside body
exo- outside

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58
Q

Hydrostatic skeletons: structure

A

Soft-bodied animals, body wall surrounds a fluid under compression, interior of animal has seawater, coelomic fluid, blood, or soft organs.

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59
Q

Antagonistic muscle groups

A

cause shape changes in
Hydrostatic Skeletons
-circumferential and longitudinal muscles

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60
Q

Alternating contractions of longitudinal and circumferential
muscles pass down earthworm in waves called

A

peristalsis

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61
Q

examples of endoskeleton

A

-Sponge endoskeletons
are made of silica to
provide structural
support
-Echinoderm
endoskeletons are
made of calcium
carbonate to provide
structural support.

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62
Q

endoskeleton structure composed of what

A

calcium carbonate

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63
Q

It is made of rigid levers
separated by joints—
vertebrates change their
shape largely by changing

A

joint angles rather than
body segments

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64
Q

vertebrate skeletons were composed of 3 main elements

A

bones, cartilage, ligaments

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65
Q

bones

A

have cells in a hard extracellular matrix:
* Bones interact at articulations or joints

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66
Q

cartilage

A

has cells scattered in a gelatinous matrix of
polysaccharides and protein fibers

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67
Q

ligaments

A

bands of fibrous connective tissue that binds bones to other bones

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68
Q

Bones attach to skeletal muscle via bands of fibrous connective
tissue called

A

tendons

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69
Q

Vertebrate skeletons move by changes in joint angles controlled by
antagonistic muscle groups:

A

flexors and extensors

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70
Q

flexors

A

pull bones closer together, decreasing joint angles (e.g.,
hamstring

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71
Q

extensors

A

increase the angle of a joint, straightening it out (e.g.,
quadriceps)

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72
Q

Endoskeletons move by contraction and relaxation
of

A

flexor and extensor muscles

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73
Q

endoskeleton function

A

calcium homeostasis
bones store calcium and other minerals

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74
Q

osteoblasts

A

bone-building cells that secrete protein and
calcium-rich extracellular matrix

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75
Q

osteoclasts

A

bone-resorbing cells that secrete acid onto bone
tissue when blood calcium levels are low to cause small amounts
of mineral to be resorbed into the blood

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76
Q

osteoporosis

A

disease in which reduced bone mass can make
bones brittle and susceptible to fracture

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77
Q

exoskeleton structure

A

exterior skeleton that encloses and protects an
animal’s body

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78
Q

insect exoskeleton
consists of

A

cuticle made up of proteins and chitin

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79
Q

Crustacean exoskeleton consists
of

A

cuticle mineralized with calcium carbonate

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80
Q

exoskeleton function

A

muscles packed within skeleton, must be shed for internal parts to grow, extensor muscles operate jointed skeletons

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81
Q

apodemes in exoskeleton

A

ingrowths where muscles are attached

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82
Q

How is musculoskeletal structure
adapted for locomotion (biomechanics)

A

High-speed video and digital images provide insights into
locomotion

83
Q

type 1 diabetes is treated with ___ injections and ___ to diet

A

insulin, attention

84
Q

insulin is produced where

A

the pancreas

85
Q

type 2 diabetes is managed how

A

prescribed diets and exercise
monitoring blood glucose levels
drugs that increase cellular responsiveness to insulin

86
Q

the incidence of type 2 diabetes is correlated with ___ determined by BMI

A

obesity

87
Q

what is an ulcer

A

eroded area in epithelium that exposes underlying tissues to damage

88
Q

what is the 5 steps of gas exchange

A

ventilation, diffusion, circulation, diffusion at the tissues, cellular respiration

89
Q

step 1. ventilation

A

movement of air or water through
specialized gas-exchange organ, such as a lung or gill

90
Q

step 2. diffusion

A

at respiratory surface where O2from the
air/water move into blood and CO2 from blood into air/water

91
Q

step 3. circulation

A

transport of dissolved CO2 and O2
throughout body via circulatory system.

92
Q

Step 4: Diffusion at the tissues

A

where O2 from the blood moves into
tissues and CO2 from the tissues move into blood

93
Q

Step 5: Cellular Respiration:

A

cells take in O2 and produce CO2

94
Q

Ventilation and diffusion at the respiratory surface are
accomplished by the ___ system

A

respiratory
gills of fishes, lungs of tetrapods, and tracheae of insects

95
Q

___ system is responsible for moving O2, CO2 and other
materials around the body:

A

circulatory
muscular heart that propels special liquid transport tissue
through body

96
Q

what is partial pressure

A

pressure of a particular gas in a mixture of gases

97
Q

when solving for partial pressure, what is the constant and why

A

0.21 because oxygen makes up 21 percent of the atmoshpere

98
Q

ficks law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of a gas depends upon five parameters

A

(1) Solubility of gas
(2) Temperature
(3) Surface area available for diffusion
(4) Differences in partial pressures of gas across the gas-exchange
surface
(5) Thickness of barrier in diffusion

99
Q

trachea carries inhaled air to narrow tubes called

A

bronchi

100
Q

bronchi branch off into even narrower tubes called

A

bronchioles

101
Q

lungs are organs for

A

gas exchange

102
Q

lungs are divided into tiny sacs called ___ greatly ___ the surface area for gas exchange

A

alveoli, increase

103
Q

surface of alveoli consists of

A

thin aqueous film
* A layer of epithelial cells
* Extracellular matrix (ECM)
material
* Wall of a capillary

104
Q

negative pressure ventilation is used by humans and other mammals for

A

pumping air

105
Q

negative pressure ventilation has 2 steps

A

inhalation and exhalation

106
Q

inhalation

A

diaphragm moves down and pressure in chest cavity is lowered, causing lungs to expand and air to move in

107
Q

exhalation

A

as diaphragm relaxes, chest cavity decreases and air is exhaled.

108
Q

platelets

A

cell fragments that minimize blood loss

109
Q

white blood cells

A

part of immune system

109
Q

red blood cells

A

transport oxygen from lungs to body tissues and participate in transporting carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs

110
Q

Blood is composed of an extracellular matrix called plasma and
has several cellular components

A

platelets, white blood cells, red blood cells

111
Q

Hemoglobin is a ___: consists of ___ polypeptide chains, each of which binds to a nonprotein group called a ___

A

tetramer, four, heme

112
Q

Each hemoglobin molecule can thus bind up to ___ oxygen
molecules

A

four

113
Q

Hemoglobin in
RBCs ….

A

transports
oxygen to tissues

114
Q

where are N2 fixing bacteria present

A

inside plant root cells

115
Q

infected root cells of legumes form nodules where N2- fixing __ are found

A

rhizobia (bacteria)

116
Q

nodules are pink because they contain

A

leghemoglobin

117
Q

leghemoglobin protects ____ which is poisoned by ___, by maintaining low levels of free oxygen

A

nitrogenase, oxygen

118
Q

step 1 of nitrogen fixing bacteria

A

young roots release compounds called flavonoids to attract rhizobia

119
Q

step 2 of nitrogen fixing bacteria

A

rhizobia contract the flavonoids, they produce nod factors

120
Q

step 3 of N2 fixing bacteria

A

nod factors bind to signaling protein on membrane surface of root hairs

121
Q

when nod factors bind to root hair surface, they set off a chain of events that leads to dramatic ____ changes in the host ___

A

morphological, legume

122
Q

essential nutrients cannot be synthesized and must be obtained from diet

A

amnio acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals

123
Q

complete digestive tracts have 2 advantages

A
  1. different chemical and physical processes can be confined to different compartments
  2. one way flow of food and wastes, material can be ingested and digested without interruption
124
Q

vital organs and glands are connected to the digestive tract as

A

accessory structures- contribute digestive enzymes

125
Q

mechanical digestion

A

involves chewing and smooth muscle contraction in stomach and small intestines

126
Q

chemical digestion

A

occur as food moves through each compartment in digestive tract

127
Q

in the mouth, enzymes in saliva begin chemical breakdown of

A

carbohydrates and lipids

128
Q

chemical digestion of __ begins in the acidic environment of the stomach

A

protein

129
Q

chemical processing is completed in

A

small intestine

130
Q

salivary amylase

A

cleaves bonds in starch to release dextrins and disaccharides

131
Q

salivary glands in the mouth secrete ___ and a slimy substance, ___

A

amylase, mucus

132
Q

cells in the tongue synthesize and secrete - which begins the digestion of lipids

A

lingual lipase

133
Q

the food propelled down the esophagus by a wave of muscle contraction is called

A

peristalsis

134
Q

peristalsis is a ___ that is stimulated by the act of swallowing

A

reflex

135
Q

The stomach is a tough, muscular
pouch bracketed on both ends by
ringlike muscles called ____,
which control the passage of
material

A

sphincters

136
Q

When food enters the stomach,
muscular contractions result in
churning that mixes and breaks
down the food

A

mechanically

137
Q

the other main function of the stomach is __ ___ digestion of protein and lipids

A

partial chemical

138
Q

protein digestion- cells in the stomach lining secrete

A

mucus, pepsinogen, and hydrochloric acid

139
Q

mucous cells

A

secrete mucous which lines the gastric epithelium and protects the stomach from damage by HCl

140
Q

chief cells- have protein- digesting enzyme known as

A

pepsin

141
Q

to prevent destruction of chief cells where pepsin is synthesized, it is stored in its inactive form

A

pepsinogen

142
Q

parietal cells

A

present in pits of stomach lining and produce HCl in gastric juice

143
Q

Parietal cells have a high concentration of
mitochondria and the enzyme

A

carbonic anhydrase

144
Q

gastrin hormone in the stomach signals parietal cells to begin secreting

A

HCl

145
Q

pancreas- ___ are enzymes that are released from the pancreas into the small intestine and digest ____ to amino acids

A

proteases, polypeptides

146
Q

proteases are released as inactive form, transferred through the ____ duct to the small intestine, and activated there by another enzyme known as

A

pancreatic, enteropeptidase

147
Q

hormone, ____, stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes from ___ and molecules from gall bladder that aid in processing ___

A

cholecytokinin, pancreas, lipids

148
Q

hormone ___ is produced in small intestine in response to the arrival of food from the stomach

A

secretin

149
Q

secretin induces flow of ___ ___ from pancreas to small intestine

A

bicarbonate ions

150
Q

choleocystokinin stimulates secretion of ___ ____ from pancreas and molecules from gall bladder that aid in processing lipids

A

digestive enzymes

151
Q

The small intestine has large surface area for absorption of nutrients and water due to epithelial tissue covered with projections called ____, which have projections called ____

A

villi, microvilli

152
Q

Each villus contains ____ ____, and a lymphatic vessel called ___, nutrients pass quickly from epithelial cells
into the body’s transport systems

A

blood vessels, lacteal

153
Q

nucleases

A

digest RNA and DNA

154
Q

pancreatic amylase

A

continue digestion of carbohydrates

155
Q

pancreas also produces enzymes for the digestion of DNA, RNA, and carbohydrates, which are

A

nucleases, pancreatic amylases

156
Q

two general principals apply for absorption:

A

highly selective, happens by active transport

157
Q

3 step model of glucose uptake

A

(1) Na+-K+ ATPase in the
basolateral membrane generate
electrochemical gradient.
(2) Glucose and Na+ enters the
cells via a co-transporter in the
apical membrane.
(3) Glucose diffuses into nearby
blood vessels through a glucose
carrier in the basolateral
membrane.

158
Q

pancreatic lipase

A

completes digestion lipids, results in release of fatty acids and monoglycerides

159
Q

fats tend to enter the small intestine in large globules- broken up by ___ before pancreatic ___ can act on them

A

emulsification, lipase

160
Q

emulsification results from the action of small molecules called ___ ___ - synthesized in the ___ and secreted in bile, which is stored in the ___

A

bile salts, liver, gall bladder

161
Q

monoglycerides and fatty acids enter the small intestine epithelial cells by ___ ____

A

simple diffusion

162
Q

inside the cells, fatty acids are processed into protein coated globules called

A

chylomicrons

163
Q

When solutes from digested material are absorbed into the
epithelium of the small intestine, water follows

A

passively by osmosis

164
Q

water absorption is an important mechanism for

A

-absorbing water that has been ingested
-reclaiming liquid that was secreted into the digestive tract in saliva, mucus, and pancreatic fluid

165
Q

the large intestine

A

absorption and elimination

166
Q

people with ___ ___ experience abnormally high levels of glucose in their blood because cells cannot import the glucose

A

diabetes mellitus

167
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

resistant to insulin, receptors no longer function correctly

168
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

autoimmune disease, do not synthesize sufficient insulin- treated with insulin injections

169
Q

what is insulin

A

produced in the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high

170
Q

insulin binds to receptors on cells and causes them to ___ their rate of glucose uptake and processing

A

increase

171
Q

insulin stimulates cells in the liver and skeletal muscle to import glucose from blood and synthesize glycogen from glucose monomers, as a result..

A

blood glucose levels decline

172
Q

if blood glucose levels fall too low, cells in the pancreas secrete a hormone called

A

glucagon

173
Q

in response to glucagon, cells in the liver catabolize glycogen and produce glucose via __ as a result..

A

gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate compounds)
glucose levels in the blood rise

174
Q

insulin and glucagon form a

A

negative feedback system

175
Q

type 2 diabetes is managed through and correlated with what

A

-prescribed diets and exercise
-monitoring blood glucose levels
obesity

176
Q

ulcers are associated with infections from a bacterium called

A

helicobacter pylori

177
Q

oxygen -hemoglobin curve or oxygen dissociation curve shows

A

co-operative binding

178
Q

co-operative binding makes hemoglobin very __ to changes in the oxygen concentration

A

sensitive

179
Q

in response to relatively small change in __ there is a relatively __- change in percentage saturation of hemoglobin

A

tissue, large

180
Q

___ ___in red blood cells catalyzes formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide i water

A

carbonic anhydrase

181
Q

CO2 produced by cellular respiration enters ___ and red blood cells

A

plasma

182
Q

circulation- circulatory system carries transport tissues called ___ into close contact with every cell in the body

A

blood

183
Q

blood vessels are classified as

A

arteries, capillaries, or veins

184
Q

arteries charac

A

tough, thick walled vessels with elastic fibers that take blood AWAY from the heart under high pressure

185
Q

small arteries are called

A

arterioles (smooth muscle fibers)

186
Q

capillaries

A

vessels whose walls are just one cell thick and allow GAS EXCHNAGE between blood and tissues in networks called capillary bed

187
Q

veins

A

thin walled vessels, larger diameter that RETURN blood to the heart

188
Q

lymphatic system

A

mechanism to drain excess fluid

189
Q

atrium (atria)

A

receives blood returning from circulation

190
Q

ventricle

A

generates force to propel blood out of the heart and through the circulatory system

191
Q

atria are separated from ventricles by ___valves. if these valves are damaged, it can lead to a heart ___

A

atrioventricular, murmur

192
Q

pulmonary artery carries blood to lungs, and pulmonary ___ return freshly oxygenated ___ to heart

A

veins, blood

193
Q

circulation is split into 2 circuits

A

pulmonary and systemic

194
Q

pulmonary circuit

A

circuit that takes blood to the lungs and gills

195
Q

systemic circuit

A

takes blood to the body

196
Q

human circulatory system returns blood that is low in oxygen from the body to the ___ ___of heart through 2 large veins called ___ and ___ venae cavae

A

right atrium, inferior, superior

197
Q

when right atrium contracts, deoxygenated blood is sent to right ____, which then contracts, sending blood to lungs via ___ ___

A

ventricle, pulmonary artery

198
Q

after blood has circulated through capillary beds in the lungs alveoli and becomes ___, it returns to heart through ___ veins

A

oxygenated, pulmonary

199
Q

left ventricular walls are so ___ with muscle that when it contracts, it sends oxygenated blood at high pressure through the aorta and into the ___ and capillaries of the ___ circulation

A

thick, arteries, systemic

200
Q

cells that initiate contraction in vertebrate heart are known as ___ ____- located in region of right atrium called ____ ___

A

pacemaker cells, sinoatrial node (SA)

201
Q

signal in SA node is rapidly conducted throughout left and right atria through ___ and electrical connections between cardiac ___ cells: signal is transmitted through ____ discs

A

physical, muscle, intercalated

202
Q

cardiovascular disease

A

group of aliments collectively affecting the heart and blood vessels

203
Q

as people age, their blood vessels harden and lose elasticity, a condition called

A

arteriosclerosis

204
Q

if arteries that deliver blood to the heart become completely blocked, a myocardial ___ or ___ ___ can occur

A

infarction, heart attack

205
Q

specialized pressure-sensing receptors called ____ are found in the walls of the heart and major ___

A

baroreceptors, arteries

bio second sem (4 decks)

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