Exam 4 Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
Opiates are _________?
A
Natural or synthetic drugs that affect pain relief in major ways.
2
Q
When a person uses a psychoactive drug so much that they need the drug for their physical or psychological well-being, this person is said to be?
A
Dependent on the drug.
3
Q
Drugs that alter one’s mood and behavior are called?
A
Psychoactive
4
Q
Processes of how a psychoactive drug can alter communications across a synapse?
A
- Drug could fit into the receptors for the neurotransmitter, blocking the neurotransmitter, but not stimulating an effect
- Drug could increase the number of neurotransmitter molecules in the synapse, thus producing a greater effect
- The drug could act like a neurotransmitter, fitting into the receptors and producing the effect
5
Q
When it takes increasing amounts of a drug to have the same effect, someone is said to be?
A
Tolerant
6
Q
Which organ is responsible for metabolizing alcohol?
A
Liver
7
Q
Which drug is not a stimulant, and is surprisingly, considered a depressant?
A
Alcohol
8
Q
Psychoactive Drug
A
- Natural or synthetic molecules that alter communication between neurons:
- Stimulate or inhibit release of NT
- Delay removal/breakdown of NT
- Acts like a NT by binding to receptors
- stimulate receptors on postsynaptic neurons
- Prevent NT action
- block receptors (prevent NT action)
- Ex. Block pain or anxiety
9
Q
Tolerance
A
-Progressive decrease in effectiveness of a drug
- Require more drug to get original effects.
- Longer/more frequent doses to produce the same effect
- Body tries to maintain homeostasis in the presence of drugs
- Increases enzymatic production to more quickly breakdown the drug
- Decreases number of receptors on postsynaptic neurons
10
Q
Dependency
A
- Physical changes to nervous system
- Drug is required by user for their physical or physiological well-being
- Nervous system is no longer able to produce “appropriate” or “normal” responses because of physical changes
- Drug required to maintain level of “homeostasis”
- Withdrawal symptoms occur when drug use stop signs
11
Q
Drugs that most quickly lead to dependency?
A
-Ones that stimulate “pleasure” centers of the brain
- Main examples:
- Cocaine
- Amphetamines
- Nicotine
- Morphine/Opiates
12
Q
Cocaine
A
- All natural from coca plant
- Produces feelings of: pleasure, confidence, alertness
- Increases “feel good’ NT
- Dopamine and Norepinephrine
- Increases residence time in synaptic gap of NT’s
- Dopamine - Blocking reuptake
- Norepinephrine
-Snorted, smoked, or injected
13
Q
Positive effects of cocaine are short-lived and then
A
- Lasts no more than 90 minutes
- Followed by a “crash”… feeling anxiety, depression, fatigue
- Produces a “craving” for more cocaine
14
Q
Cocaine Health Issues
A
- Cardiovascular
- Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and interferes with nerves that regulate heartbeat
- Can result in heart attack or stroke
- Constricts arteries - increases blood pressure
- Respiration
- Interferes with neurons controlling respiration
- As cocaine wears off, activity in respiration centers of brain become depressed – potentially causing respiratory failure
-Damaged nerves, membranes, blood vessels of the nose (repeated snorting)
15
Q
Amphetamines
A
- Synthetic stimulants that interferes with reuptake and increases release of dopamine and norepinephrine
- Effects dopamine and norepinephrine
- Effects of can last for hours
- In low, controlled doses, prescription versions of these drugs increases alertness, concentration, reduced fatigue
16
Q
Meth
A
- Street form of amphetamine
- Smoked (most common), ingested as pills, crushed then snorted, or injected
- Behavioral modification
- Prolonged use appears to have long-term negative consequences to nervous system
- Chronic meth users often suffer from impairments to memory and emotional centers of brain
- Induces euphoria, feelings of high self-esteem, increased libido, insomnia, mania
- Long-term and high doses: anxiety, paranoia, movement disorders, also hallucinations, and psychotic behavior
- Plug reuptake pumps
17
Q
Hallucinogenic Drug
A
- Ecstasy (MDMA)
- A diverse array of drugs – similar effects (like mushrooms, LSD, etc.)
- Visual, auditory, or other hallucinations
- Effects:
- Serotonin (sense of well-being)
- Acetylcholine promotes release of serotonin and dopamine
18
Q
Ecstasy Physiological Effects
A
- Stimulant
- Causes hyperthermia (increased body temp - heat stroke)
- Dehydration
- If water intake is increased substantially, sodium and potassium can become diluted. Sodium needed for action potential in neuron. Better to drink something with electrolytes
- Ecstasy pills/liquids often contain other drugs
- Effect is more meth-like
19
Q
Ecstasy Long-Term Effects
A
- Degradation of dopamine/serotonin releasing neurons
- Chronic depression, anxiety, insomnia
20
Q
Opioids
A
- Affects opioid receptors
- Produce “morphine-like” effects - pain relief
-Variety of drugs:
codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, tramadol, vicodin, percocet, morphine, heroin
- Easily leads to addiction, physical dependence, thus withdrawal
- Respiratory distress (death)
-Fentanyl and carfentanil – extremely potent, thus dangerous
21
Q
Alcohol
A
- Depresses (slows down) activity of all neurons.
- Tends to depress inhibitory neurons quickest
- Excitatory neurons run amuck AT FIRST
- Release from inhibitory controls tends to reduce anxiety and creates a sense of wellbeing
- Readily diffuses into cells
22
Q
Ethanol
A
- (Alcohol)
- The alcohol in every “alcoholic” drink – very small molecule
- Both water and lipid soluble (will enter cell very quickly; readily gets into cells)
- Standard “drink” = 0.5 oz of ethanol(/alcohol?)
- Intoxicating effects begins quickly as it is absorbed
- Absorption begins in the stomach
- Higher concentration = faster absorption (stronger the alcohol, faster you’ll get drunk)
- Food slows down absorption
23
Q
Alcohol Elimination
A
- Liver breaks down alcohol.
- About 1 standard drink per hour
- Enzymatic breakdown begins in stomach.
- Alcohol dehydrogenase (enzymes)
- more in men than in women
- genetic patterns – more in certain populations
-small amount (5%) of alcohol excreted in urine and by lungs (breathalyzers)
24
Q
Alcohol Health Issues: Heart and Blood Vessels
A
-Moderate use (1 drink/day) appears to help heart (decreases cardiovascular disease)
- High consumption:
- Liver disease
- Alcohol is metabolized before fat
- Fat accumulation in liver cells
- Liver cells swell and burst
- Scar tissue formation (cirrhosis)
- Cardiovascular damage
- Nervous system problems -At high levels, inhibits neurons for balance, coordination, consciousness, and breathing
- Fetal alcohol syndrome
- moves across placenta
- birth defects
25
Alcohol Health Issues: Nervous System -- Short-Term
- Depresses activity of all neurons
- Neurons in higher thinking centers affected first (e.g., inhibitory neurons, motor control)
- At high levels, inhibits neurons for consciousness and breathing
- As alcohol level increases, inhibition of neurons associated with consciousness
26
What factors can influence your alcohol ratio?
- Size
- Weight
- Sex
- Genes
27
Blood
- Specialized Connective Tissue
- Cells and platelets, soluble protein, suspended within a liquid matrix (plasma)
- Functions:
- Transportation of oxygen, nutrients (glucose ions, etc.), and wastes (CO2, etc)
- Regulation:
- Body temperature and buffers pH
- Protection:
- Immune cells - white blood cells
28
Blood Composition
- Plasma
- Cells - Formed Elements
- White blood cells
- Red blood cells
29
Red Blood Cells
-”Erythrocytes”
- Abundant
- Drop of blood contains several millions of RBC
-Transport oxygen from lungs to cells
30
Red Blood Cell Structure
- Biconcave disc
- Maximizes surface area/volume ratio
- Flexible: easy movement
- No nuclei, few organelles
- Mostly sac of the protein hemoglobin
31
Hemoglobin
- Protein
- Each made of proteins
- Each protein holds 4 iron ions that bind oxygen
- Each RBC contains ~280 million hemoglobin molecules
32
Anima
- “not moving oxygen around”
| - Lack of blood
33
Anemia
- Don’t have enough iron, which carries oxygen, which is used for cellular respiration, which makes ATP (energy), so anemia can slow down and eventually kill cells
- Ex. Sickle celled anemia
- Lack of oxygen = anemia
- Cardiovascular disease
- Internally bleeding, and you don’t know it
- Ex-heroin addict
34
Regulation of RBC
1. Kidney senses O2 levels in blood
2. If low, kidney releases erythropoietin (EPO)
3. EPO acts on red bone marrow to increase RBC production
4. Mature RBCs released
5. Increased blood, O2 levels
6. Kidney senses higher O2 and stops releasing EPO
- EPO: a small molecule like NT
- This is a negative feedback system
35
White Blood Cells -- Leukocytes
- ”Housekeeping”
- remove damaged or abnormal cells
- Immune cells
- warriors against disease
- Types:
- Granulocytes - contain granules (sacs filled with cell-destroying chemicals)
- Agranulocytes - lack large granules (or just really small)
36
Granulocytes
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
37
Neutrophils
- Most abundant WBC
- First to site of infection
- Engulf microbes (through phagocytosis)
- In death, release chemical that attracts more neutrophils
38
Eosinophils
-Contain toxins against parasitic worms
39
Basophils
-Release histamines (chemicals that attract WBC causing inflammation)
40
Agranulocytes
- Monocytes
| - Lymphocytes
41
Monocytes
- Engulf microbes, dead cells, debris
- Can squeeze between cells and roam freely.
- Become macrophages when it leaves bloodstream.
- Largest white blood cells
42
Lymphocytes
-Specific immunity cells
- B cells - B Lymphocytes
- Produces antibodies - proteins that recognize specific molecules (antigens) on invading cells.
- T cells - T Lymphocytes
- Cellular defense
43
Blood Types
-Based on presence of surface proteins on RBC (antigens)
- ABO Blood types
- Type A = A proteins
- Type B = B proteins
- Type AB = A and B proteins
- Type O = No blood typing proteins
- Antibodies: detect antigens that your body likes
- Our body's defenses
- Antigens: what you have on surface (proteins)
- If wrong antigens are present, the body's defense will attack it
44
Rh Factor
- Based on presence/absence of surface antigen on RBC
- No Rh factor = Rh-
- Yes Rh factor = Rh+
- Inheritance: simple/typical dominant/recessive
- Rh+ = dominated
- Rh- = recessive
*Need to know Punnett square
45
Cardiovascular System
- Heart (“cardio”)
- Blood Vessels (“vascular”)
- Lungs
- Active system
- heart rates vary
- blood vessels dilate and contract
46
Blood Vessels
- Conduct blood
- Arranged as branching networks
1. Arteries:
- Carries blood away from heart
- More important if damaged
2. Veins:
- Brings blood towards the heart
3. Capillaries:
- microscopic sites of exchange
47
Veins
- Movement of blood towards heart
- Gravity
- Pressure from pumping of heart
- Back-flow valves with skeletal muscle contraction
48
Capillaries
- Microscopic blood vessels
- Sites of nutrient and gas exchange between blood and interstitial fluids
- Diffusion and pressure moves oxygen, CO2, nutrients, and other things through capillaries
49
Heart Contractions
- Cardiac muscle cells are packed tightly together with interweaved membranes
- Allows electrical signal to spread rapidly and the muscle cells to work together during contractions
- 70 contractions per minute
- Pumps 5 liters per minute; 2,500 gallons/day
50
Cardiovascular Disease
-Major cause of death in the U.S.
- High blood pressure - “hypertension”
- damaged blood vessels, capillaries = kidney damage, heart damage
- Many factors contribute -- lifestyle is important (lack of exercise; bad diet (fats and sugars); genetic factors; smoking)
- Atherosclerosis (“yellow hardening of arteries”)
- Coronary artery disease
- buildup of fatty substances (LDL) in arterial walls
- blockage occurs as a complex inflammatory response (associated with white blood cells)
51
Lymphatic System
- Returns interstitial fluids back to bloodstream
| - Focusing on its role in protecting against disease-causing organisms
52
Main parts you need to know about lymphatic system
- Lymph: (fluid) when you get blister, it’s filled with this fluid
- Lymphatic vessels
- Lymph nodes
- Spleen
- lymphocyte production
- removes old blood cells, microorganisms, debris
- Thymus
- T cell maturation
53
Lymph Nodes
- "Filters" intercellular fluid being return to the bloodstream
- Lymph flows through at least one node before returning to bloodstream
- Packed with macrophages and lymphocytes
- When you get sick, they swell up
- Found all over body
- They help fight infection
54
Digestive System
- Breakdown macromolecules to absorbable units
- Molecules small enough to be absorbed into bloodstream and delivered to cells
- Absorption of nutrients
- Houses important bacteria
- Rid body of non-digestible wastes
55
Mouth
-Start of food digestion
- Monitors food quality
- nerves, taste buds (receptors)
- Mechanical digestion
- jaw, teeth, tongue, moisture
- Chemical digestion
- Saliva is the start
- Amylase (enzyme that digests starch)
56
Pharynx
- Passage way for food and air
| - Sensory receptors “shut off” trachea before swallowing, sends food down esophagus
57
Esophagus
-Muscular tube that conducts food to stomach
- Movement via peristalsis
- Inner circular layer of muscle constricts.
- Outer layer running lengthwise shortens contracting region.
58
Stomach
-3 layers of muscle
- Stores food
- Expandable
- Controlled openings
-Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
59
Mechanical Digestion
-Mixes food with secretions.
- Liquefies food (2-6 hours)
- Converted to “chyme” - Said to not worry about this
60
Chemical Digestion
- Pepsin
- protein digesting enzyme
- Hydrochloric Acid
- Breaks down connective tissue
- Kills bacteria
- Prevention of self-digestion
- Layer of Mucus - Alkaline (pH basic)
- Without HCL pepsin is inactive (= pepsinogen)
- High replacement rate of lining cells.
61
Heartburn
- Sphincter that keeps stuff in the stomach is weak
| - Acidic stomach contents move up esophagus
62
Ulcers
- ”Peptic ulcers”
- Stomach lining eroded by gastric juices
- Causes:
- Use of NSAIDs (ibuprofen, etc.)
- Helicobacter pylori (“Sun Bacteria of Sphincter Muscle”)
63
Small Intestine
- Absorption of nutrient
- Requires large surface area
-Very large surface area
- Circular folds
- Like expandable duct work
- Chyme is mixed as it moves
- Villi
- Finger-like projections
- Microvilli
- Hair-like structures
64
Pancreas and Liver
- Liver produces bile, which aids in digestion of lipids
- Gallbladder: bile storage
- Pancreas: (behind stomach) produces digestive enzymes and pancreatic juices that neutralize stomach acid
65
Large Intestine
- Water (re)absorption
- Vitamin absorption
- Houses large populations of microorganisms:
- Bacteria species that provide lipids and important vitamins.
- Feces storage
- For water re-absorption and controlled dumping/sanitation
-Feces elimination
66
Nutrients
- Energy source = ATP formation
- Building blocks = amino acids
- Vitamins: B3 (Niacin) used in NADH and FADH
- Function as coenzymes
- Minerals
- Iron (helps carry oxygen), calcium (muscle contractions), salts, etc.
67
Essential Nutrients
-Essential amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins must be acquired directly from food
68
Nonessential Nutrients
-Nonessential amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins can be synthesized in body
69
Lipids -- Review
- Large hydrocarbon chains (Carbon with lots of Hydrogen)
- Insoluble in water -- “nonpolar”
- Saturated: (with hydrogen)
- Will turn into oil
- No double bonds between carbons
- Can build up, which is bad
- Unsaturated:
- will NOT turn into oil
- better to eat these types
- double-bonds between carbons change physical shape of molecules, thus its behavior
- Pulls away stuff, which is good
- Trans fats
- hydrogenated oils
*LOOK UP CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR SATURATED AND UNSATURATED*
70
Functions of Fats (mostly review)
- Storage of energy; good source of energy
- Structural components
- Insulator (does not conduct heat well)
- Protection
- Absorption and transport of some vitamins
- Absorption of “fat soluble” vitamins
- A, D, E, and K associated with fat, the lipids carry vitamins through bloodstream to cells
71
High fat diet associated with
- Obesity: high blood pressure and diabetes
- Cancers: colon and prostate
- Atherosclerosis
72
Cholesterol
- Consumed in food but most synthesized by liver
- Cholesterol binds with proteins and triglycerides to be carried around body (lipoproteins)
- We want high levels of HDL and low levels of LDL
73
-Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL):
- Carry cholesterol to cells and also potentially deposits them along artery walls
- Not good in general, but need some of them, not a lot
74
High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
- Carry cholesterol away from cells and potentially away from artery walls
- Generally considered good.
75
What fats to eat?
- Saturated fats raise LDL levels
- fats from beef, pig
- Can build up - is bad
- Unsaturated fat
- Pulls stuff away - is good
-Trans fats raise LDL and lower HDL
- Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (rich in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) lowers LDL
- Sources: nuts, olives, several vegetable oils, and oils in certain fish (herring, tuna, salmon, sardines)
76
Carbohydrates
-Predominantly from plants
- Sugars, starches, and fiber
- Some fiber we can digest, some past through us.
-Rich in energy
- Simple carbohydrates = sugars
- Monosaccharides, disaccharides
- Occur naturally in vegetables, fruit, and milk
- Complex carbohydrates = starch and fiber
- Starches are digested (broken down) into simple sugars
- Fiber is indigestible
We mostly consume refined sugars
- Stripped of natural vitamins and fibers
- Quickly converted to “blood sugars”
77
Glycemic Response
- How quick a food is converted to sugar in blood
- How much a food affects blood sugar levels
- High glycemic load
- Highly processed bread and cereals, potatoes, white rice
- Low glycemic load
- Whole fruit and vegetables, whole grains
78
Blood Sugar Control When High Glycemic
1. Pancreas senses high blood sugar levels
2. Releases insulin
3. Insulin acts to increase glucose absorption by liver cells & others (Liver)
79
Blood Sugar Control When Low Glycemic
1. Pancreas senses low blood sugar level.
2. Releases Glucagon
3. Glucagon signals liver to release glucose
4. Glucose level rises.
80
Proteins
-Amino acids to make our own proteins
Proteins come in 2 parts:
- Complete proteins
- Contain all essential amino acids
- chicken, turkey, pork, beef, lamb, fish
- Incomplete proteins
- Does not contain all essential amino acids
- beans
81
Vitamins
- Small carbon-containing compounds (molecules)
- Coenzymes (assist enzyme functions)
- Only 13 vitamins needed in minute amounts
- Except for vitamin D, we must acquire vitamins from food, sometimes with help of bacteria
- Two general types:
- Water soluble (n=9)
- C & B Vitamins
- Fat Soluble (n=4)
- A, D, E, & K
*TABLE 15.6
82
Minerals
- Inorganic substances
- Variety of purposes
- Some needed in fairly large amounts:
- Calcium
- Phosphorus
- Magnesium
- Potassium
- Chloride
- Sodium
- Sulfur
- We need trace amounts of others
- *SEE TABLE 15.7
83
Why do we crave bad fats and sugars?
- Because these foods weren’t common in the past
- Because we didn’t always have it in our diet (evolution)
- Because it’s easily accessible
84
Cause for kidney stones?
-Too much calcium
85
Bacteria and Viruses Review
- Bacteria:
- made of cells
- 100x smaller than human cell
- alive
- Viruses:
- 100x smaller than bacteria cell
- they often infect bacteria rather than human
- not alive
86
Pathogens
-Agents that cause disease
- Infectious agents that cause disease or illness
- Bacteria (ex: herpes): alive
- Viruses: not alive
- Protozoans: (ex: giardia); alive
- Fungi: alive
- Parasitic worms: alive
- Prions (infectious proteins); not alive
87
Three lines of Body Defenses
1. Physical and chemical barriers
- Keep pathogens out
2. Innate - Internal Cellular and Chemical Defenses
- Attack any pathogen-like agent or unusual cells
3. Adaptive Immune Responses
- Destroy specific (targeted) invaders
- Remember the invaders to elicit a quicker future response
88
Physical and Chemical Barriers
-Type of body defense
- Skin
- Outer layer is dead cells filled with keratin, constantly being replaced and shed
- Sweat and oil produced by glands slow bacterial growth
- Mucus membranes
- Mucus traps microbes or cilia in respiratory system
- Chemical barriers
- Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, amylase
- Beneficial bacteria
- In the intestines appear to limit invasion by other disease-causing microorganisms, possibly through competition
-Mucus in vagina pushes out invaders and houses beneficial bacteria that create an acidic environment
89
Innate - Internal Cellular and Chemical Defenses
- Type of body defense
- Innate, nonspecific, internal
- Defensive cells
- Many white blood cells: seek at any unknown or abnormal cell or cells with altered signaling proteins on membrane
- Natural-killer cells: attacking abnormal cells
90
Defensive Proteins
Two Types:
1. Interferons: Proteins released by virus-infected cells
- Attract NK cells and macrophages
- Signaling neighboring cells to produce proteins to inhibit...
2. Complement systems: Groups of proteins that enhance body defenses
- Circulate blood, activate when infection is detected, punching holes in membranes of invading cells
- Attract macrophages and neutrophils
- Assist defensive cells to acquire invading cells
- Stimulate blood vessel widening -- inflammation
- Increases access of white blood cells
91
Inflammation
- Body response to infection
- Redness: blood vessels dilate (increasing flow) in response to histamines
- Heat: increased blood flow elevates temperature, increasing metabolic rate of cells in infected area
- Swelling: histamines induce swelling, making capillaries more permeable (leak)
- Pain: protect infected area
92
Adaptive Immune Response
- Type of body defense
- Specific defense response and “memory”
- Defensive cells that recognize specific invader
- Lymphocytes: white blood cells responsible for adaptive immune response
- B cells (B lymphocytes)
- T cells (T lymphocytes)
93
Identifying Invaders or Abnormal Cells
- MHC markers: major histocompatibility complex “markers”, proteins that label body cells as “self” or “good”
- Antigens: molecules on surface of cells recognized by defensive cells as “enemy” or “no good”
94
Steps in adaptive immune response
1. Threat
2. Detection
3. Alert
4. Alarm
5. Attack
6. Surveillance
95
Adaptive Immune Response: Threat
- Pathogen enters body
| - Pathogen evades first two lines of body defense
96
Adaptive Immune Response: Detection
-Macrophage (or B cell) encounters pathogen, engulfs and digests it, then places some antigens from the pathogen onto its surface
97
Adaptive Immune Response: Alert
- Specific helper T cell that recognizes the antigen
- ”Antigen presenting cell” encounters specific Helper T cell that recognizes the antigen (it has a receptor for the specific antigen)
98
Adaptive Immune Response: Alarm
- Helper T cell activated -- rapid mitotic division
| - Helper T cell secretes message that activates T cells or B cells with ability to recognize the particular antigen
99
Adaptive Immune Response: Attack
- Activated B or T cells - rapid mitotic division
- Appropriate B and T cells activate
- Start rapid mitotic division-making “effector cells” that recognize and attack the invading pathogen
100
Adaptive Immune Response: Surveillance
- Activated Helper T cells and B cells are produced as “memory cells”
- Memory cells: activated Helper T cells, B, or T cells that live for months or years
- These memory cells recognize and respond to the specific antigen
- Future response to any re-invading antigen is much quicker and more robust
101
Helper T Cell (in relation to “Alert” cell)
- Huge population of Helper T cells with different receptors that recognize specific antigens
- Finding one with a receptor for a novel antigen is like finding a needle in a haystack
- Concentrate search in lymph nodes
- Call for exterminators (T and B cells)
102
Sexually Transmitted BACTERIA
- Chlamydia
- Gonorrhea
- Syphilis
103
Chlamydia
- May not produce noticeable symptoms (asymptomatic)
- Highly contagious
- Rapidly becoming epidemic (exists in high proportions)
104
Gonorrhea
- One of the oldest known STDs
| - Infection rate low across U.S
105
Syphilis
- Low rates in U.S., but active in certain populations
- Invades mucous membranes or breaks in skin
- Can cross placenta to infect fetus
- Treatable with antibiotics (mostly)
- Later stages hard to cure (by 3rd stage, damage to nervous system, blood vessels, etc.)
-There are three stages (he won’t ask us about these)
106
Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Symptoms? Cure?
- Both infect mucous membranes (anything secreting mucus)
- Urethra, vagina, oviducts, endometrium, anus, throat
- Common Symptoms:
- Urinary tract infections
- Men: burning/itching of urethra; abnormal discharge
- Women: infection of reproductive tract; pain/burning; abnormal vaginal discharge
-Treatable with antibiotics
- Chronic infection may cause sterility (for women)
- Scarring of oviducts
107
Sexually Transmitted VIRUSES
- Herpes Simplex Viruses
- HSV1: mostly active around mouth
- HSV2: mostly active around genitals
108
Herpes Simplex Viruses. Spread? Symptoms? Cure?
-Very contagious
- Spread by contact
- Infects mucous membranes
- Can infect broken skin
- Most contagious with active sores/blisters
- Can be spread even without blisters
- Common Symptoms:
- Outbreaks = blisters
- Can be accompanied by fever, aching muscles, swollen lymph glands
- Genital herpes appear 2-20 days after infection
- Sometimes asymptomatic
- No cure of HSV
- Viruses can hide from adaptive immune system
- Severe infections to newborns possible
109
Why aren’t they called sexually transmitted organisms, instead of pathogens/agents?
-They’re not all alive
110
Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs). Symptoms? Treatment?
- Genital warts are symptoms of HPvs
- Not the same viruses that cause warts on hands and feet
- Highly contagious, spread by contact
- Common Symptoms:
- Warts of different shapes
- Warts in vagina, anus, or cervix are not readily visible
- Most people don’t recognize that they are infected
-Body’s defenses can fight and often eliminate HPVs
- Linked to cancers
- Some are difficult to eliminate, and have been linked to cancers
- Cervical, penile, anal, throat
- Treatable by freezing, burning, laser, surgery, chemical
- Epidemic in U.S.: 50% of sexually active people will acquire an HPV, but rates are declining because of vaccines
111
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
-Causes “Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome” (AIDS)
- Infects mucous membranes, through broken skin, or blood to blood
- Blood, semen, vaginal secretions all carry the virus
- Helper T cells: HIV commonly infect Helper T cells
- This virus damages advantages adaptive immune response
-Mothers can infect offspring across placenta, during delivery, or in breast milk
112
Stages of HIV
- Initial Infection
- Asymptomatic Stage
- Initial Disease
- Early Immune Failure and AIDS
113
Stages of HIV: Initial Infection
- Virus replicates in body
- Adaptive immune system produces antibodies against virus (defends itself)
- Often asymptomatic, but some people have enlarged lymph nodes, fatigue, fever
- brain disorders possible
- Contagious: individuals at this stage are contagious
- Even though they may not know they’re infected
114
Stages of HIV: Asymptomatic Stage
-Over weeks to years
- Adaptive immune system defends against virus
- individuals feel healthy, show no signs of disease
- Virus retreats to certain organs, particularly lymph nodes
- Replicates in lymph nodes
115
Stages of HIV: Initial Disease
- Eventually, immune system falters
- Swelling of lymph nodes
- Wasting syndrome
- Weight loss
- Diarrhea
- Neurological Disorders:
- HIV, or other organisms, infect central and peripheral nervous system
116
Stages of HIV: Early Immune Failure and AIDS
- Immune system begins to collapse
- Helper T cell numbers contribute to drop
- Symptoms accumulate
- Infections appear, associated with a weak immune system
- Thrush (fungus)
- Shingles (virus)
-Opportunistic pathogens and cancers invade
117
AIDS
- Opportunistic pathogens invade
- Immune system collapses
- Cancers spread
118
What does AIDS stand for?
-Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
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Are antibacterial medicine successful against viruses?
-No, but we go to the doctor to get some when we get the flu.
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Endocrine System
-System of glands and associated organs that contain cells that produce hormones
- Hormone – molecule that regulate function of other cells or organ systems
- Molecule secreted into blood stream in tiny amounts by endocrine cells.
- Bind with receptors in/on specific (target) cells.
- Influence target cells, but other cells without correct receptors are not directly affected.
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Main functions of Endocrine System
1. Regulation of body development.
| 2. Interact with nervous system to help regulate & coordinate body systems to promote homeostasis.
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Complexity of the Endocrine System
* Many hormones happen all over and simultaneously.*
| * This system is very complex and integrated*
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Pancreas
- Glucagon
- Increases blood glucose level
- Insulin
- Decreases blood glucose level
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Lipid Soluble Hormones
- Include ‘steroid hormones’ derived from cholesterol.
- Lipid is soluble in lipids
- Both steroid and cholesterol are lipids
-Move easily through cell membranes to bind with receptors within cytoplasm or nucleus
‘Complex’ attaches to DNA (in nucleus) and activates certain genes.
-Will change what is happening/phenotypes
-Both types of solubles can be just as fast
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Water soluble hormones
-Peptide hormones
- Cannot pass through membranes
- Instead, bind with receptors on cell surface.
- Which activates a second molecule in cytoplasm, that then influences existing enzymes in the cell.
- Ex. Epinephrine causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
- Both types of solubles can be just as fast
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Regulation of Hormones
- Stimuli that cause the production and release of hormones:
- External signals from nervous system
- Changes in nutrients (glucose), ion levels (Ca+), etc.
- Other hormones
Regulation is mostly by negative feedbacks:
-Ex. Pancreas senses high level of glucose in blood and secretes insulin response.
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Interactions between Hormones
- Antagonistic
- Ex. Pancrease secretes both insulin and glucagon
- Glucose prompts the liver to breakdown storage molecules and release glucose to the blood
- Synergistic
- Ex. Epinephrine and glucagon both prompt liver to release glucose to blood
- When both are present, response is greater than either alone
- Permissive
- One hormone must be present for another to work
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Endocrine System - Important Point
The endocrine system interacts with the nervous system to regulate and coordinate other body systems to promote homeostasis
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Neurosecretory Cells
- Specialized neurons that transmit and generate nerve impulses AND secrete hormones
- In effect, functioning as both neurons and endocrine cells
-In hypothalamus produce antidiuretic (AD) hormone and oxytocin (OT).
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What metallic ion in the hemoglobin molecule is responsible for binding oxygen?
-Iron
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Why is atherosclerosis especially dangerous when found in the coronary arteries?
- This can restrict blood flow to the heart muscle
| - It can lead to a heart attack, that then deprives the rest of the body of blood flow
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Which type of blood vessel has the primary function of allowing the exchange of materials between blood and cell bodies?
-Capillaries
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What is the cancer of the white blood cells called?
-Leukemia
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Blood that is oxygen poor and heavy with carbon dioxide wastes travels through ______ from body tissues back to the lungs
-Arteries
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What is the function of the lymph nodes?
-Lymph nodes are filled with macrophages and lymphocytes that destroy disease causing agents and infected cells in lymph prior to its return to the blood
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What is normal blood pressure?
-120/80
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Normal blood pressure is considered to be 120/80. What does the “120” represent?
-The highest ideal arterial pressure for someone at rest.
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Which white blood cell type has specifically evolved to defend against parasitic worms?
-Eosinophils
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What is hemoglobin made up of?
-A protein consisting of several polypeptides combined with irons
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The heart is considered to be a double pump because?
-The two sides of the heart pump blood that never mixes
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Oxygen, and much of carbon dioxide, is transported by:
-Red blood cells
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What is the smallest blood vessel?
-Capillary
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Functions of the lymphatic system?
- Transports products from fat digestion from the small intestines to the blood stream
- Helps the body defend against disease-causing organisms
- Returns excess interstitial fluids to the bloodstream
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Major functions of the white blood cells?
- Removing waste and toxins
- Removing damaged or abnormal cells
- Fighting against pathogens, like bacteria
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What is the liquid portion of blood?
-Plasma
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All formed elements in blood, including red and white blood cells, arise from?
-Red bone marrow
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You are suffering from anemia and have insufficient oxygen in your blood. What would likely show on your blood test?
-Your red blood cell count is low
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A person with blood type AB can receive blood from which types?
- A
- B
- O
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What stimulates the production of red blood cells?
-The hormone, erythropoietin (EPO)
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What is the value of dietary fiber?
- Helps prevent constipation and hemorrhoids
- Lowers LDL levels in blood, thus appears to be good for cardiovascular health
- Bacteria in the large intestine can digest some fiber, thus providing some useful nutrients to the body
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What is the major reason why you eat proteins?
-To acquire amino acids that your body needs to build its own proteins
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The primary function of the stomach _______.
-Short-term storage and digestion (breakdown) of food into smaller molecules
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Essential amino acids must be acquired from food. Nonessential amino acids _________.
-Can be synthesized in the body
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Why are vitamins needed only in very small amounts?
-The body can use them over and over as they are not broken down or destroyed during use
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You are told by some supplement sales person that taking very high levels of vitamin A might be good for your scaly, itchy skin. But what might be a potential problem with this sales pitch?
-Excessively high levels of vitamin A is associated with dry, scaly skin
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Which mineral is the only one that does not have a known effect from excessive consumption?
-Sulfur
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The liver has many functions in the body, but what is listed as the main function of the liver for digestion?
-To aid in digestion by producing bile for use in the small intestine
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What is the purpose of villi?
-Absorption of nutrients
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What is the primary role of the large intestine in digestion?
- To absorb water from food residue
- To store feces, thus allowing organized elimination of waste from the body
- To house useful bacteria which help break down indigestible food and produce important vitamins
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What is a potential problem with consuming excessive doses of vitamin C?
-Diarrhea
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What is the function of bile?
-Aids in the breakdown and digestion of fats
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What was the change in the percentage of people considered obese in Nevada between 2011 and 2013?
-The percentage increased from 20-24% to 25-30%
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How many layers of muscle does the stomach have?
-3
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What is the correct order for food as it passes through the organs of the digestive system?
-Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus
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Which combination of organs is involved in the chemical digestion of proteins?
-Stomach and small intestine
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Digestion is the process by which the body breaks down the large, complex molecules we eat into smaller units. Absorption is the process by which these smaller molecules are then brought into the bloodstream and delivered to cells. True or false?
-True
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How does your body recognize that the bacteria are foreign to the body?
-Defensive cells recognize molecules, called antigens, on the surface of the bacteria
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Statements about HPV that are true?
- Genital warts may be caused by one of several human papillomaviruses, not just a single virus
- HPV infection is common and statistic indicate that about 50% of sexually active people in the U.S. will acquire an infection
- The warts associated with HPVs may not be readily evident and often occur within the vagina, cervix, or anus, thus many infected individuals do not know that they are infected
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What is the most frequently occurring bacterial STD in the United States?
-Chlamydia
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What are the Natural Killer cells doing to the cancerous cell?
-Using proteins to create holes in the cancerous cell’s membrane
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What is the third step of the adaptive immune response?
-Helper T cell is alerted to the presence of an antigen
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At the beginning of the cycle and at the end, HIV is shown to have a particular type of genetic material. What is the genetic material?
-RNA
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What causes genital herpes?
-One of two herpes viruses (known as HSV-1 and HSV-2)
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What does a defensive cell place on the surface of its plasma membrane (specifically on its MHC markers)?
-Antigens from a bacteria
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What will cure genital herpes?
-Nothing. It cannot currently be cured.
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What is the function of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) markers?
-To identify the cells that belong to the body
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If a pathogen (like a bacteria or virus) is able to get through the body’s first line of defense, and then overwhelms the second line of defense, and is only slowed briefly by the third line of defense before it, too, is overwhelmed, what is the body’s next defense?
-Nothing. The body will die because there is no other line of defense.
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What is a potential serious consequence of chlamydia and gonorrhea infection for women?
-Scarring of the oviduct leading to sterility
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Which STD is not caused by bacteria (but instead is caused by a virus), and therefore, could not be stopped by taking anti-bacteria medications (antibiotics)?
-Genital warts
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Which cell plays an important role in the adaptive immune response, but is actually part of the innate defensive system?
-Macrophage
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If you punch holes through skin to “anchor” jewelry studs, which line of defense are you potentially undermining?
-Physical and chemical surface barriers
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Which type of cells are part of your “innate, nonspecific internal defenses”? Which type is NOT part of them?
- Neutrophils
- Macrophages
- Natural killer cells
- NOT: Helper T cells
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What is the term used to describe a molecule, organism, or other agent (e.g., virus) that threatens the body?
-Antigen
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What is true regarding reproduction of the human immunodeficiency virus?
-It uses a human cell to reproduce
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Taxonomy of Human
- Domain: Eukarya
- Kingdom: Animalia
- Phylum: Chordata
- Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates
- Family: Hominidae/Great -Apes
- Genus: Homo
- Species: -sapiens
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Five agents of evolution
- Natural selection
- Sexual selection
- Gene flow
- Genetic drift
- Mutation
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Mitosis
- Division that results in identical cells
| - Results in two daughter cells each containing a full, identical set of genetic information
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Meiosis
- Cell division resulting in genetically different cells
| - Cells have 1/2 of the chromosomes (Haploid Cells)
