Exam 5 Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
Be able to outline the path through the digestive system
A
2
Q
Be able to define the function of all the parts of the digestive system
A
• Mouthandpharynx–entry
• Esophagus – delivers food to stomach
• Stomach – preliminary digestion
• Small intestine – digestion and absorption
• Large intestine – absorption of water and minerals
• Cloaca or rectum – storage of waste
• Anus - expel waste
Liver-produces bile
Gallbladder-stores and concentrates bile
Pancreas-digestive enzymes
3
Q
What are the different respiratory systems and how do they promote efficient gas exchange?
A
Cutaneous respiration-through the skin
Gill respiration-aquatic animals
Pulmonary respiration-lungs
4
Q
What type of blood flow do gills use to maximize oxygen uptake?
A
Oxygenated
5
Q
How does the operculum negate the need for ram ventilation?
A
Allowing them to actively pump water over their gills
6
Q
How do insects and spiders breathe?
A
Insects- transport air directly to their tissues (without bulk transport) and
air enters through openings(spiracles) in abdomen
Spiders-book lungs
7
Q
What makes bird lungs special from other terrestrial vertebrates?
A
Unidirectional flow-When expanded during inhalation, they take in air
and when compressed during exhalation, they push air in and through lungs
8
Q
Open vs Closed circulation
A
Open- No distinction between circulating and extracellular fluid and fluid called hemolymph
Closed-Distinct circulatory fluid enclosed in blood vessels and blood transported away from, and back to, the heart
9
Q
Advantage of closed circulation?
A
Closed circulatory systems can control blood flow to specific regions of the body by varying the resistance to flow and closed systems can deliver O2 and nutrients to specific tissues at high pressures
10
Q
Identify the differences in heart chambers between vertebrates.
A
Mammals, birds, crocodiles-4 chambers
Fish-2 chambers
Amphibian and reptile-3 chambers
11
Q
How does having more chambers help?
A
2 separate atria
2 separate ventricle
Double circlulation
More efficient
12
Q
Pulmonary circuit vs systemic circuit
A
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and lungs
Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body
13
Q
Advantages of double circulations?
A
Increases supply of oxygenated blood to active tissues
Increases uptake of O2 at gas exchange surface
14
Q
Positive Feedback
A
Positive feedback = a stimulus causes a response in the same direction which leads to a further response
15
Q
Negative Feedback
A
• Homeostasis typically depends on negative feedback
• A change in a system causes a response to bring the system back to the starting point
16
Q
Antagonistic Effectors
A
involved in the control of body temperature
If hypothalamus detects high temperature
• Promotes heat dissipation via sweating and dilation of blood vessels
in skin
If hypothalamus detects low temperature
• Promotes heat conservation via shivering and constriction of blood vessels in skin
17
Q
Endotherm
A
Endotherms-generate heat metabolically and maintain their temperature above the ambient temperature
• Warm blooded
18
Q
Ectotherm
A
Ectotherms- low metabolic activity and do not generate heat
metabolically
• Cold blooded
19
Q
Thermogenesis
A
When temperatures fall below critical threshold normal responses are not sufficient to warm an animal
20
Q
Thermoregulation
A
controlled by the hypothalamus
• Neurons in the hypothalamus detect the temperature change
• Stimulation of the heat-losing center
• Peripheral blood vessel dilation
• Sweating
• Stimulation of heat-promoting center
• Thermogenesis
• Constriction of blood peripheral blood vessels
• Epinephrine production by adrenal glands
• Anterior pituitary produces TSH
21
Q
Pheromones
A
Chemical signals that communicate between animals
22
Q
Osmosis
A
• Allows for regulation of water and electrolyte levels in cells
23
Q
Osmotic Pressure
A
Measure of a solution’s tendency to take in water by osmosis
24
Q
Osmolarity
A
Number of osmotically active moles of solute per liter of solution
25
Tonicity
Measure of a solution’s ability to change the volume of a cell by osmosis
Solutions may be hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic
26
Osmoconformers
Organisms that are in osmotic equilibrium with their
environment
Among the vertebrates, only the primitive hagfish are strict osmoconformers
Sharks and relatives (cartilaginous fish) are also isotonic
27
Osmoregulators
all other vertebrates
Maintain a relatively constant blood osmolarity despite different concentrations in their environment
28
Consequences of being endotherms and ectotherms?
Endotherm-Activity over wide range of ambient temperatures, Requires frequent food intake, and Birds, mammals, fast swimming fish (sharks, tuna)
Ectotherm-1. Constrained bouts of activity 2. Lower food requirements
29
How are the endocrine and nervous systems similar? How are they different?
Both initiate responses to stimuli from the environment OR inside the animal
• Nervous system has an immediate response to a stimuli
• Endocrine system can have a slower acting response to a stimuli (sometimes days or even months)
30
What are the different classes of hormones?
• 1. Peptides and proteins
• Glycoproteins
• 2. Amino acid derivatives
• Catecholamines
• Thyroid hormones
• Melatonin
• 3. Steroids
• Sex steroids
• Corticosteroids
31
Understand the function of different organs involved in the endocrine system.
Thyroid gland-secretes:Thyroid hormones, Thyroxine, Triiodothyronine, Calcitonin , Regulates enzymes controlling carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
Parathyroid gland-4 small glands attached to the thyroid, produce parathyroid hormones , raises blood Ca2+ levels
Adrenal glands- Medulla (inner portion):Stimulated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, Cortex (outer portion) :Stimulated by anterior pituitary
hormone ACTH, Corticosteroids
Pancreas-Connected to the duodenum of the small intestine by the pancreatic duct,Insulin,Stimulates cellular uptake of blood glucose and its storage as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells, or as fat in fat cells, Glucagon, Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose tissue
Pineal gland-Located in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain, Secretes hormone melatonin,Functions of melatonin, Reduces dispersal of melanin granules, Synchronizes various body processes to a circadian rhythm
,Secretion of melatonin activated in the dark
32
Know pheromones classifications and give an example of each.
1. mate attractants-ex:mammals
2. territorial markers-ex:ants
3. alarm substances-ex:insects
33
How is water maintained in different phyla and what organs are involved?
Freshwater vertebrates-Hypertonic to their environment-Have adapted to prevent water from entering their bodies, and to actively transport ions back into their bodies
Marine vertebrates-Hypotonic to their environment-Have adapted to retain water by drinking seawater and eliminating the excess ions through kidneys and gills
Terrestrial vertebrates-Higher concentration of water than surrounding air
-Tend to lose water by evaporation from skin and lungs -Urinary/osmoregulatory systems have evolved in these vertebrates that help them retain water
34
What are the types of nitrogenous waste and how do organism deal with it?
Uric acid:is not dissolved in water & does not exert osmotic pressure
,It is eliminated with minimal water loss for the animal, This allows many reptiles and insects to live in extremely hot and dry environments
,Uric acid is energetically expensive to produce
Ammonia:Ammonia is either eliminated from the body or converted into a less toxic form, Some organisms, such as fish, are able to excrete ammonia directly into the surrounding water, primarily through their gills
,As a result, ammonia does not accumulate to toxic levels in these organisms
Urea:Because urea is less toxic than ammonia, it can be stored in a fairly concentrated form before being excreted, In mammals, urea is produced in the liver and is then carried by the blood to the kidneys, where it is eliminated,Urea is less toxic than ammonia but requires energy to produce it and water to eliminate it
35
Fragmentation
parent animal breaks into pieces
• Each piece develops missing parts via mitosis
• Each offspring is a clone
36
Parthenogenesis
Females produce eggs that are not fertilized by sperm
• Unfertilized eggs develop via mitosis
Develops in crustacea, insects, reptiles
37
r-strategists
typically adapted to take advantage of unpredictable habitats where conditions become temporarily favorable
Gamete production is high; low investment per offspring
• Probability of offspring survival is low (little/no parental care)
• Common in aquatic animals with external fertilization (but not limited to this group)
38
K-strategists
adapted to compete in stable, predictable habitats
• Produce fewer gametes (and offspring); larger investment per offspring
• Often increased parental care; increased probability of offspring survival • Fertilization is internal
39
Lottery hypothesis
increase the probability of survival of a few offspring by producing large numbers of offspring
40
Semelparous
one major reproductive effort in a lifetime
Produce large numbers of offspring (salmon, cicadas, mayflies)
41
Iteroparous
multiple broods over the lifetime of the parent
• Often produce fewer offspring but with repeated reproductive events
42
Precocial
Capable of movement and self-sufficiency soon after birth
43
Altricial
Born in an immature and helpless condition requiring care for some time after birth
44
Oviparity
eggs are deposited in the environment and offspring develop outside of the female’s body
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Viviparity
• Viviparous animals retain embryo inside female reproductive tract
• Physiological support provided by maternal system via the placenta
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Ovovivipary
• Produce eggs inside body but give birth to live young
• Eggs develop in uterus, not placenta
47
Gastrulation
• Process involving a complex series of cell shape changes and cell movements that occurs in the blastula
• Creates the three primary germ layers:ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
48
Organogenesis
• Formation of organs in their proper locations
• Occurs by interaction of cells within and between the three germ layers
• Thus, it follows rapidly on the heels of gastrulation
• In many animals it begins before gastrulation is complete
49
What ways can asexual reproduction occur?
Genetically identical cells or individuals called clones (unless mutations)
• 1. Binary fission – cell division,genome replication
• 2. Budding – protrusion (extension) grows by mitosis from parent
• 3.Fragmentation–parent animal breaks into pieces
• Each piece develops missing parts via mitosis
• 4. Parthenogenesis – females produce eggs that are not fertilized by sperm
50
Know the benefits and costs of asexual and sexual selection.
Asexual -benefits:does not require special cells or a lot of energy, can produce quickly, creates large and thriving population
Costs:limited ability to adapt, face massive die off if environment changes
Sexual-benefits:lots of variation w in a species, able to live in a variety of environments, able to adapt
Costs:needs time and energy, produces small populations
51
Be able to discuss the reproductive modes available to different animal phyla.’
Live birth-mammals, fish, amphibians, and reptiles
52
Compare r-strategists and K-strategists
• r = typically adapted to take advantage of unpredictable habitats where conditions become temporarily favorable
• K = adapted to compete in stable, predictable habitats
53
Ecology
study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments
54
Population
group of individuals of the same species in one place
55
Metapopulation
• Occur in areas in which suitable habitat is patchily distributed and is separated by intervening stretches of unsuitable habitat
• Dispersal
• Interaction may not be symmetrical
• populations increasing in size send out many dispersers
• small populations have few dispersers but accept many immigrants
• Individual populations may become extinct • Population bottlenecks may occur
56
Demography
Quantitative study of populations
• How size changes through time can be studied at two levels
• Whole population: increasing, decreasing, remaining constant
• Population broken down into parts
• then study birth and death rates of a specific age
57
Carrying capacity (K)
symbolized by K, is the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support
58
Density-dependent effect
• Positive feedback =
• Allee effect; growth rates
increase with population size
• At high population size:
• locustshavedifferenthormonal & physical characteristics
• takeoffasaswarm
59
Density-independent effect
• Rate of growth of a population at any instant is limited by something unrelated to the size of the population
• External environment aspects: cold winters, droughts, storms, volcanic eruptions
• Populations display erratic growth patterns because of these events
60
Ecosystem
• Includes all the organisms that live in a particular place, plus the abiotic environment in which they live and interact
• Biogeochemical cycles
• Chemicals moving through ecosystems • Biotic and abiotic processes
• Biogeochemical cycles usually cross the boundaries of ecosystem
• One ecosystem might import or export chemicals to another
61
Community
• Species that occur at any particular
locality
• Characterizedby
• Species richness
• Number of species present
• Primary productivity
• Amount of energy produced
• Interactions among members govern many ecological and evolutionary processes
62
1st law of thermodynamics
energy is neither created nor destroyed, it changes forms
63
2nd law of thermodynamics
whenever organisms use chemical-bond or light energy some is converted to heat (entropy)
64
Primary productivity
productivity of the primary producers
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Secondary productivity
productivity of a heterotroph trophic level
66
Gross primary productivity
raw rate at which primary producers synthesize new organic matter
67
Net primary productivity
is the GPP less the respiration of the primary producers
68
Niche
the total of all the ways an organism uses the resources of its environment
• Space utilization
• Food consumption
• Temperature range
• Appropriate conditions for mating
• Requirements for moisture and more
69
Fundamental niche
• Entire niche that a species is capable of using, based on physiological tolerance limits and resource needs
70
Realized niche
Actual set of environmental conditions, presence or absence of other species, in which the species can establish a stable population
71
Keystone species
• Species whose effects on the composition of communities are greater than one might expect based on their abundance
• Sea star predation on barnacles greatly alters the species richness of the marine community
• Keystone species can manipulate the environment in ways that create new habitats for other species
• Beavers • Alligators
72
Species richness
Species richness is influenced by ecosystem characteristics
• Primary productivity
• Habitat heterogeneity
• Accommodate more species
• Climatic factors
• More species might be expected to coexist in seasonal environment than in a constant one because a changing climate favors different species at different parts of the year
73
Biosphere
Sum of all ecosystems on earth
74
Angle of incidence
The angle between a wave or ray of light and the normal
75
Biome
A large area of land or water with similar climates, plants, and animals
76
Describe characteristics of population ecology
Size, density, distribution, age structure, sex ratio, and dispersion patterns
77
Population spacing patterns (3 types)
Uniform-evenly spaced apart
Random-no pattern
Clumped-grouped together in clusters
78
Which one is common in nature?
Clumped
79
What information does a survivorship curve tell you?
The proportion of a population that survives to reach different ages
80
Models of population growth
Exponential and logistic growth
81
Exponential
Occurs when a quantity grows at a rate directly proportional to its present size
82
Logistic
Population growth where the growth rate is influenced by the population size and natural resistance
83
Compare r-selected populations to k-selected populations
R selected-prioritize rapid reproduction with many offspring , often in unstable environments
K selected-focus on producing fewer, higher quality offspring with greater parental care, typically thriving in stable environments near carrying capacity
84
Describe how humans impact/influence/alter the: Carbon cycle
Significantly influencing the earths climate through the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels cause by human activities like burning fossil fuels, leading to global warming which can result in extreme weather events, rising sea levels, disruptions to food security, and potential health risks
85
Describe how humans impact/influence/alter the: Water cycle
Providing the freshwater necessary for survival, influencing weather patterns, regulating climate, and determining where populations can live
86
Describe how humans impact/influence/alter the: Nitrogen cycle
Directly affecting the food supply through plant growth
87
Describe how humans impact/influence/alter the: Phosphorous cycle
Being essential for life
88
What are some potential implications of the human impacts to the above biogeochemical cycles?
Climate change, biodiversity loss, disruptions in ecosystem services
89
List the trophic levels and give an example for each trophic level
Tertiary consumers-lion eating wolf
Secondary consumer-wolf eating deer
Primary consumer- deer eating plants
Producer-grass
90
Species interactions
The relationships between organisms of different species that live in the same area
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Competition
Direct or indirect interaction between organisms or species that compete for limited recourses
92
Resource partitioning
Different species w in an ecosystem use resources in different ways or use different resources altogether, allowing them to coexist w out competing for the same resources
93
Predation
Biological interaction where one organism,the predator, kills and eats another organism, the prey
94
Commensalism
Long term biological interaction between two species where one species benefits and the other is unaffected
95
Mutualism
Ecological interaction where two or more species benefit from each other
96
Parasitism
Symbiotic relationship where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, and harms it in the process
97
Describe an example of a key stone species or ecosystem engineer
A beaver
98
Primary vs secondary succession
Primary succession- occurs in a completely barren area w no existing soil where life must begin from scratch
Secondary-happens in a previously disturbed area where some soil and life remain
99
Role of disturbance in succession
Initiating the process by creating open space in an ecosystem, allowing new species to colonize and essentially resetting the successional sequence
100
Why is biodiversity important?
Underpins the health functioning of ecosystems that provide essential services to humans, including clean air, water, food security, and climate regulation
101
Threats to biodiversity
Climate change, habitat loss, over exploitation, pollution, invasive species
102
What biome do you live in?
Grasslands
103
Biomagnification
Describe one example
The process by which toxic chemicals and heavy metals increase in concentrations as they move up the food chain
The presence of mercury w in predatory fish
104
Coriolis effect – which direction for winds in each hemisphere?
Circulating air is deflected
Northern hemisphere-winds curve to the right
Southern hemisphere-winds curve to the left
105
Greenhouse effect
Natural process that warms the earths surface by trapping heat in the atmosphere
106
List main greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor
107
Describe human interactions and impacts
The ways in which humans interact with their environment
